UnderstandingHumanBehaviorandtheSocialEnvironmentbyCharlesZastrowKarenK.Kirst-AshmanSarahL.Hessenauerz-lib.org3.pdf

Council on Social Work Education Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards by Chapter
The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards requires all social work students to develop nine competencies and recommends teaching and assessing 31 related component behaviors, listed as Educational Policy (EP) Competencies 1–9 below. The multicolor icons (see figure at right) and end of chapter “Competency Notes” connect these important standards to class work in the chapters
identified below with bold blue type.
The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015) Chapter(s) Where Referenced
Competency 1—Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
a. Make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context
1
b. Use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations
1
c. Demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written, and elec-tronic communication
1
d. Use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes 1
e. Use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior 1
Competency 2—Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice: 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 13
a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 13
b. Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own experiences
1, 5, 13
c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies
1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 13
Competency 3—Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental Justice: 1, 5, 9, 13
a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels
1, 5, 9, 13
b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice 1, 5, 9, 13
Competency 4—Engage in Practice-informed Research and Research-informed Practice: 1
a. Use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research 1
b. Apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantitative and qualitative research meth-ods and research findings
1
c. Use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery
1
Competency 5—Engage in Policy Practice: 1, 16
a. Identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services
1, 16
b. Assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services
1
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The 9 Competencies and 31 Component Behaviors (EPAS, 2015) Chapter(s) Where Referenced
c. Apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, economic, and environmental justice
1, 16
Competency 6—Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituen-cies
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
b. Use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effectively engage diverse clients and constituencies
1
Competency 7—Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
a. Collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies
1
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
c. Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives based on the critical assess-ment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies
1
d. Select appropriate intervention strategies based on the assessment, research knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies
1
Competency 8—Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Communities:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
a. Critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capaci-ties of clients and constituencies
1
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and con-stituencies
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14
c. Use inter-professional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes 1
d. Negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies 1
e. Facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals 1
Competency 9—Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and Com-munities:
1
a. Select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes 1
b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes
1
c. Critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes 1
d. Apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels
1
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Empowerment Series
Charles H. ZastrowProfessor Emeritus
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Karen K. Kirst-AshmanProfessor Emeritus
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Sarah L. HessenauerAssociate Professor
University of Wisconsin-Whitewater
Understanding Human Behavior
and the Social Environment
ElEvEnth EDItIOn
Australia ● Brazil ● Mexico ● Singapore ● United Kingdom ● United States
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Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2017
Empowerment Series: Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment, 11th editionCharles H. Zastrow, Karen K. Kirst-Ashman, and Sarah L. Hessenauer
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To Taylor Grayson, Sydney Harper, and Aiden Joel Pauley and Kathy Zastrow
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v
1 Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 1
PART I Infancy and Childhood2 Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 45
3 Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 95
4 Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 159
5 Ethnocentrism and Racism 233
PART II Adolescence6 Biological Development in Adolescence 282
7 Psychological Development in Adolescence 320
8 Social Development in Adolescence 361
9 Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 410
PART III Young and Middle Adulthood10 Biological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 455
11 Psychological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 485
12 Sociological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 536
13 Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 604
PART IV Later Adulthood14 Biological Aspects of Later Adulthood 640
15 Psychological Aspects of Later Adulthood 672
16 Sociological Aspects of Later Adulthood 703
Brief ContentsBrief Contents
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v i i
Preface xxiAbout the Authors xxv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 1A Perspective 3
Explain the Importance of Foundation Knowledge for Social Work with an Emphasis on Assessment 5
The Profession of Social Work 6The Process of Social Work: The Importance
of Assessment 6Identifying and Evaluating Alternative Courses of Action 6
✦ Highlight 1.1 Generalist Social Work Practice 7
Review the Organization of This Book That Emphasizes Lifespan Development 7
✦ Highlight 1.2 Case Example: Unplanned Pregnancy 8
✦ Highlight 1.3 Bio-Psycho-Social Developmental Dimensions Affect Each Other 9
Common Life Events 9Typical Developmental Milestones 10
Describe Important Concepts for Understanding Human Behavior 11
Human Diversity, Cultural Competency, Oppression, and Populations-at-Risk 11
✦ Highlight 1.4 Culture and the Importance of Cultural Competency 11
Focus on Empowerment, the Strengths Perspective, and Resiliency 13
✦ Highlight 1.5 Assessing Your Strengths 17
Critical Thinking About Ethical Issues 19
✦ Highlight 1.6 Ethics in Social Work at the International level: human Rights and Social Justice Issues 20
✦ Highlight 1.7 Application of values and Ethics to Bio-Psycho-Social Assessments 21
Employing Conceptual Frameworks for Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment: A Person-in-Environment Perspective 22
✦ Highlight 1.8 Goals of Social Work Practice 23
Employ a Conceptual Framework for Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Ecosystems Theory 24
✦ Highlight 1.9 A Summary of Some of the Other theoretical Perspectives Addressed in this Book 25
Understanding Key Concepts in Systems Theories 26Application of Systems Concepts to a Case Example of Child
Abuse 28Understanding Key Concepts
in the Ecological Perspective 32
Recognize People’s Involvement with Multiple Systems in the Social Environment 35
Micro, Mezzo, and Macro Systems 35Interactions Between Micro Systems and Macro Systems 36
Recognize Social Worker Roles 37A Variety of Roles 37
Identify Knowledge, Skills, and Values Necessary for Generalist Social Work Practice 39
✦ Highlight 1.10 Knowledge, Skills, and values needed for Social Work Practice 39
Contents
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v i i i Contents
The Impacts of Macro-System Policies on Practice and Access to Services 72
1 Spotlight on Diversity 2.1 International Perspective on Abortion Policy 74
✦ Highlight 2.4 Intact Dilation and Extraction (late-term Abortion) 78
Incidence of Abortion 79Reasons for Abortion 79Methods of Abortion 80The Importance of Context and Timing 81Arguments for and Against Abortion 81
1 Spotlight on Diversity 2.2 Effects of Abortion on Women and Men 81
Social Worker Roles and Abortion: Empowering Women 82Abortion-Related Ethical Dilemmas in Practice 83
✦ Highlight 2.5 More Abortion-Related Ethical Dilemmas in Practice 84
Explain Infertility 85Causes of Infertility 85
✦ Highlight 2.6 Aging Affects a Woman’s Fertility 86
Psychological Reactions to Infertility 86Treatment of Infertility 87Assessment of Infertility 87Alternative Options for Starting a Family 88Social Work Roles, Infertility, and Empowerment 91
✦ Highlight 2.7 the Effects of Macro Systems on Infertility 92
Chapter Summary 92
1 Spotlight on Diversity 2.3 A Feminist Perspective on Infertility Counseling and Empowerment 93
Competency Notes 94
Web Resources 94
CHAPTER 3
Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 95A Perspective 96
Summarize Psychological Theories About Personality Development 97
The Psychodynamic Conceptual Framework 97
✦ Highlight 3.1 Definitions of Common Defense Mechanisms Postulated by Psychoanalytic theory 99
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Psychodynamic Theory 101
Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic Developments 101Behavioral Conceptual Frameworks 102Phenomenological Conceptual Frameworks: Carl
Rogers 102Feminist Conceptual Frameworks 104
Chapter Summary 42
Competency Notes 43
Web Resources 44
PART IInfancy and Childhood
CHAPTER 2
Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 45A Perspective 46
Describe the Dynamics of Human Reproduction 46Conception 47Diagnosis of Pregnancy 48Fetal Development During Pregnancy 48Prenatal Influences 49Drugs of Abuse 51Prenatal Assessment 52
✦ Highlight 2.1 Social Workers Can Assist Women in Getting Prenatal Care: Implications for Practice 54
Problem Pregnancies 54The Birth Process 55
✦ Highlight 2.2 An International Perspective on low-Birth-Weight Infants 60
Early Functioning of the Neonate 61
Explain Typical Developmental Milestones for Infants and Children 61
Growth as a Continuous, Orderly Process 61Specific Characteristics of Different Age Levels 62Individual Differences 62The Nature-Nurture Controversy 62Relevance to Social Work 63
Profiles of Typical Development for Children Ages 4 Months to 11 Years 63
Age 4 Months 63Age 8 Months 63Age 1 Year 64Age 18 Months 65Age 2 Years 65Age 3 Years 66Age 4 Years 66Age 5 Years 67Ages 6 to 8 Years 68Ages 9 to 11 Years 69A Concluding Note 69
Significant Issues and Life Events 69
Examine the Abortion Controversy: Impacts of Social and Economic Forces 69
✦ Highlight 2.3 Case Example: Single and Pregnant 70
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Contents i x
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.1 Diversity in Feminism 107
Critical Thinking About the Relevance of Theory to Social Work 109
✦ Highlight 3.2 Use Critical thinking to Evaluate theory 110
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.2 Relate human Diversity to Psychological theories 112
Examine Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development 115The Sensorimotor Period 116The Preoperational Thought Period 117The Period of Concrete Operations 118The Period of Formal Operations 119Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Piaget’s Theory 119
Review the Information-Processing Conception of Cognitive Development 121
Attention 121Memory 122Development of Information-Processing Strategies 123
Apply Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development 123
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.3 Sociocultural learning of Interdependence versus Independence 124
The Zone of Proximal Development 125Scaffolding 125Private Speech 125Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 126
Explain Emotional Development 126Infants’ Emotions 127Infants and Temperament 128Attachment 130
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.4 Cross-Cultural Diversity in Expectations and temperament 130
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.5 Cross-Cultural Differences in Attachment 133
Examine Self-concept, Self-esteem, and Empowerment 133
✦ Highlight 3.3 the Effects of Positive and negative Self-Concepts 134
Significant Issues and Life Events 135
Discuss Intelligence and Intelligence Testing 135Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence 135Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 135Intelligence Testing 137Targeting Special Needs 138Other Potential Problems with IQ Scores 139
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.6 Explain Cultural Biases and IQ test 140
Analyze Intellectual Disabilities and the Importance of Empowerment 140
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.7 What Are People with Intellectual Disabilities like? 141
Defining Intellectual Disability 142The Significance of Empowerment by Support Systems 143Macro-System Responses to Intellectual Disabilities 144
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.8 the Americans with Disabilities Act: the Pursuit of Social and Economic Justice 144
Social Work Roles 147
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.9 Empowerment and a Consumer-Direct Approach 147
Examine Learning Disabilities 148
1 Spotlight on Diversity 3.10 Other Disabilities that Can Affect Children 149
Common Problems Involved in Learning Disabilities 150What Causes Learning Disabilities? 151Effects of Learning Disabilities on Children 151Interventions for Learning Disabilities 152Policies to Achieve Social Justice for Children Who Have
Learning and Other Disabilities 153
Discuss Attention Deficit Disorder 154Treatment for ADHD 155Social Work Roles 155
Chapter Summary 156
Competency Notes 158
Web Resources 158
CHAPTER 4
Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 159A Perspective 160
Explain the Concept of Socialization 161
Analyze the Family Environment 161Membership in Family Groups: Variations in Family
Structure 161Positive Family Functioning 163Macro Systems, Families, and the Pursuit of Social
and Economic Justice 164The Dynamics of Family Systems 165
Apply Systems Theory Concepts to Families 166Systems 166Homeostasis 166Subsystems 167Boundaries 167Input 167Output 168Feedback 168Entropy 169Negative Entropy 169Equifinality 169Differentiation 169
Assess the Family Life Cycle 170
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x Contents
1 Spotlight on Diversity 4.1 Explain Diverse Perspectives on the Family life Cycle 170
Describe Learning Theory 175Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Theory 175Respondent Conditioning 176Modeling 177Operant Conditioning 178The ABCs of Behavior 178
✦ Highlight 4.1 Consequences and Recurring Behavior 178
Reinforcement 179Punishment 180Extinction 181
Apply Learning Theory Concepts to Practice 182The Use of Positive Reinforcement 183The Use of Punishment 188Additional Issues 190
✦ Highlight 4.2 Accidental training 191
A Specific Treatment Situation: Time-Out from Reinforcement 193
Examine Common Life Events That Affect Children 195Membership in Family Systems 195Membership in Sibling Subsystems 196
1 Spotlight on Diversity 4.2 Cultural Context and Parenting Style 197
1 Spotlight on Diversity 4.3 Recognize Ethnic and Cultural Differences in Families: Empowerment through Appreciation of Strengths 198
Gender-Role Socialization 202
Assess Relevant Aspects of the Social Environment 202
The Social Aspects of Play with Peers 202Bullying 206The Influence of Television and Other Media 208The School Environment 210
1 Spotlight on Diversity 4.4 head Start and Cultural Responsiveness 212
Examine Child Maltreatment 213Incidence of Child Maltreatment 214Physical Child Abuse 214
1 Spotlight on Diversity 4.5 Diverse Cultural Contexts: Discipline or Abuse? 215
✦ Highlight 4.3 Shaken Baby Syndrome 216
Child Neglect 218Psychological Maltreatment 220Macro-System Responses to Child Maltreatment 221Sexual Abuse 224
✦ Highlight 4.4 Suggestions for talking to Children victimized by Sexual Assault 227
✦ Highlight 4.5 Use of Cognitive-Behavioral techniques with Children Who have Been Sexually Abused 229
Chapter Summary 230
Competency Notes 232
Web Resources 232
CHAPTER 5
Ethnocentrism and Racism 233A Perspective 234
Define and Describe Ethnic Groups, Ethnocentrism, Race, Racism, Prejudice, Discrimination, Oppression, and Institutional Discrimination 234
Ethnic Groups and Ethnocentrism 234
Race and Racism 235
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.1 violence Against Minorities in the United States 236
Aspects of Social and Economic Forces: Prejudice, Discrimination, and Oppression 237
Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes 238
Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Is the Problem of Whites 239
White Privilege 239Hate Crimes 239
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.2 Discrimination Against Arab Americans and American Muslims 240
Race Is a Social Concept 241
Institutional Values and Racism: Discrimination in Systems 242
Discrimination and Oppression in Organizational Macro Systems 242
Discrimination and Oppression in Community Macro Systems 243
Outline the Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination 244
Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination 244Projection 244Frustration-Aggression 244Countering Insecurity and Inferiority 244Authoritarianism 244History 245Competition and Exploitation 245Socialization Patterns 245Belief in the One True Religion 245White Supremacy 246Evaluation of Discrimination Theories 246
Summarize the Effects and Costs of Discrimination and Oppression and Describe the Effects of Discrimination on Human Growth and Development 246
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Contents x i
Impacts of Social and Economic Forces: The Effects and Costs of Discrimination and Oppression 246
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.3 Is Racial Discrimination Based on Criminal thinking? 247
Stereotyping and Multiculturalism: A Perspective 249
Intersectionality of Multiple Factors 251
The Effects of Discrimination on Human Growth and Development 251
History and Culture of African Americans 251Effects of Discrimination on Development
of Self-Concept 253The Afrocentric Perspective and Worldview 254
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.4 Kwanzaa 255
Suggest Strategies for Advancing Social and Economic Justice 256
Traditional Models of Community Change 256
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.5 latino and hispanic Communities Promote Strengths and Empowerment 258
Contemporary Conceptual Frameworks of Community Change 261
✦ Highlight 5.1 Characteristics of three Models of Community Change 262
Community Strategies to Promote Social and Economic Justice 263
Mass Media Appeals: Striving to Change Institutional Values 263
Greater Interaction Between Minority Groups and the Majority Group 263
Civil Rights Laws: Changing the Legal Macro System 263Activism 263Affirmative Action: A Macro-System Response 264
1 Spotlight on Diversity 5.6 Rosa Parks’s Act of Courage Sparked the Civil Rights Movement 265
Confronting Racist Remarks and Actions 266Minority-Owned Businesses 267
Ethical Dilemma Are native American Casinos a Benefit or a Detriment? 268
Asset-Based Community Development 268
Human Rights and Social Justice 270
Outline Some Guidelines for Social Work Practice with Racial and Ethnic Groups 272
Social Work Practice with Racial and Ethnic Groups 272
Ethnic-Sensitive Practice 272Empowerment 272Strengths Perspective 273Culturally Competent Practice 273
✦ Highlight 5.2 the Key to Improving the lives of Others Is the Strengths Perspective 274
Cultural Humility 275Social Work Roles for Countering Discrimination 279
Forecast the Pattern of Race and Ethnic Relations in the United States in the Future 279
The Future of U.S. Race and Ethnic Relations 279
Chapter Summary 280
Competency Notes 281
Web Resources 281
PART IIAdolescence
CHAPTER 6
Biological Development in Adolescence 282A Perspective 283
Define Adolescence 284
Describe Major Physical Changes During Adolescence 284
Puberty 284The Growth Spurt 285The Secular Trend 285Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics 285
1 Spotlight on Diversity 6.1 Diversity and Menarche 286
Explain Psychological Reactions to Physical Changes 287
Body Image and Self-Concept 287Early and Late Maturation in Boys 288Early and Late Maturation in Girls 289Brain Development During Adolescence 289Adolescent Health, and Substance
Use and Abuse 290
Significant Issues and Life Events 292
✦ Highlight 6.1 Masturbation 293
Describe Sexual Activity in Adolescence 294Unplanned Pregnancy in Adolescence 294
1 Spotlight on Diversity 6.2 Racial and Other Differences in Adolescent Sexual Activity 294
Teenage Fathers 295Why Do Teens Get Pregnant? 296
✦ Highlight 6.2 Portrait of a Single Father 296
Assess Sex Education and Empowerment 297Sex Education by Parents 298Current Policy and Sex Education Programs 299Abstinence-Only-Before-Marriage Sex Education
Programs 299
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x i i Contents
Comprehensive Sex Education Programs 300
✦ Highlight 6.3 Initiating Kissing and Sexual Intimacy 301
1 Spotlight on Diversity 6.3 Empowerment through Sex Education for native Americans 303
Identify Sexually Transmitted Infections 303Chlamydia 304Gonorrhea 304Syphilis 305Pubic Lice 306Scabies 306Trichomoniasis 306Genital Herpes 306Human Papillomavirus (HPV) 306HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) 307Preventing STIs 307
Explain Major Methods of Contraception 308The Pill 308The Birth Control Patch and Vaginal Ring 310Depo-Provera Injections 310Hormonal Implants 311Emergency Contraception (EC) 311Vaginal Spermicides 312Condoms for Men 312The Female Condom 313The Diaphragm and Cervical Cap 313The Birth Control Sponge 314The IUD (Intrauterine Device) 315Withdrawal 316Fertility Awareness Methods 316Sterilization 316Contraceptive Methods of the Future 317
Chapter Summary 318
Competency Notes 319
Web Resources 319
CHAPTER 7
Psychological Development in Adolescence 320A Perspective 321
Explore Identity Formation in Adolescence 321Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory 321Implications of Identity Formation in Adolescence 324
✦ Highlight 7.1 how to Determine Who You Are 324
Marcia’s Categories of Identity 326Critical Thinking: The Evaluation of Theory and Application
to Client Situations 327Glasser’s Theories on Identity 327Comments on Glasser’s Theories on Identity 329
Examine Race Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity Development 329
1 Spotlight on Diversity 7.1 lesbian and Gay Adolescents: the need for Empowerment 330
An Alternative Model of Racial and Cultural Identity Development 331
Communities and Schools Can Strengthen Racial and Cultural Identity Development for Adolescents 332
Explore Moral Development 333Moral Development: Kohlberg’s Theory 334Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Kohlberg’s Theory 335Moral Development and Women: Gilligan’s
Approach 335Critical Thinking: Evaluation, of Gilligan’s Theory 337Ethical Applications of Gilligan’s Theory to Client
Situations 338Moral Development: A Social Learning
Theory Perspective 338
Review Fowler’s Theory of Faith Development 339Fowler’s Seven Stages of Faith Development 339Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Fowler’s Theory 341Social Work Practice and Empowerment Through Spiritual
Development 341Significant Issues and Life Events: Assertiveness and
Suicide 342
1 Spotlight on Diversity 7.2 Evidence-Based Practice and Spirituality 343
Assess Empowerment Through Assertiveness and Assertiveness Training 343
The Relevance of Assertiveness 344Nonassertive, Assertive, and Aggressive
Communication 344
✦ Highlight 7.2 Each of Us has Certain Assertive Rights 345
The Advantages of Assertiveness 346Assertiveness Training 346Application of Assertiveness Approaches to Social Work
Practice 348
Explore Suicide in Adolescence 348Incidence of Suicide 348Causes of Adolescent Suicide 349
✦ Highlight 7.3 Joany: A victim of Suicide 350
Lesbian and Gay Adolescents and Suicide 351Suicidal Symptoms 351
✦ Highlight 7.4 Suicide notes 351
How to Use the SAD PERSONS Scale 354
1 Spotlight on Diversity 7.3 Suicide and Adolescent hispanic Females 354
✦ Highlight 7.5 the SAD PERSOnS Scale 355
Guidelines for Helping Suicidal People 355Community Empowerment: Suicide Prevention and Crisis
Intervention 357
Chapter Summary 359
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Contents x i i i
Competency Notes 360
Web Resources 360
CHAPTER 8
Social Development in Adolescence 361A Perspective 362
Describe the Social Development Changes That Adolescents Undergo 363
Social Development Changes in Adolescence 363Movement from Dependence to Independence 363
✦ Highlight 8.1 Interaction in Families: Effective Communication Between Parents and Children 364
Is Adolescent Rebellion a Myth? 367Interaction in Peer Group Systems 367Empowerment of Homeless Youth 367
Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Eating Disorders 368
Social Problems 368Eating Disorders 368
Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatments of These Problems 373
Causes 373Impacts of Social Forces 374Treatment 374
Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Emotional and Behavioral Problems 375
Emotional and Behavioral Problems 375
✦ Highlight 8.2 Major Mental Disorders According to the American Psychiatric Association 376
✦ Highlight 8.3 Self-Injury in Adolescents 379
Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatment of These Problems 379
Assessing and Treating Unwanted Emotions: Application of Theory to Client Situations 379
✦ Highlight 8.4 Format for Rational Self-Analysis (RSA) 381
✦ Highlight 8.5 A Rational Self-Analysis to Combat Unwanted Emotions Following the Ending of a Romantic Relationship 382
✦ Highlight 8.6 Our thinking Determines Our Behavior and Our Emotions 385
Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Crime and Delinquency 386
Macro-System Problems: Crime and Delinquency 386
✦ Highlight 8.7 Cyber Bullying 386
✦ Highlight 8.8 Sex trafficking 387
Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatments of These Problems 387
Causes 387
✦ Highlight 8.9 Self-talk Explanation for Columbine Massacre 388
Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Delinquent Gangs 389
Macro-System Problems: Delinquent Gangs 389Four Types of Gangs 389
Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatment of These Problems 390
Sociological Theories: Applications of Theories to Gangs 390
Understand Material on Social Work with Groups, Including Theories About Group Development and Theories About Group Leadership 393
Empowerment Through Social Work with Groups 393Types of Groups 393
1 Spotlight on Diversity 8.1 the RAP Framework for leading Multiracial Groups 397
Models of Group Development over Time 398
✦ Highlight 8.10 Case Example: therapy Group for Spouses of Adults with Cancer 399
Task and Maintenance Roles 402Leadership Theories 403The Servant Leadership Approach 406
Chapter Summary 407
Competency Notes 408
Web Resources 409
CHAPTER 9
Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 410A Perspective 411
Define Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Gender Roles 412
Discuss the Social Construction of Gender 412
Examine the Complexities of Gender, Gender Identify, and Gender Expression 413
Evaluate Traditional Gender-Role Stereotypes over the Lifespan 416
1 Spotlight on Diversity 9.1 Other Forms of Gender Expression 417
Childhood 418Adolescence 418
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x i v Contents
1 Spotlight on Diversity 9.2 Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Gender-Role Development 419
Adulthood 420
✦ Highlight 9.1 the Special Issues and needs of Men 422
Assess Some Differences Between Men and Women 422Ability Level 422Communication Styles 423People as Individuals 424
Significant Issues and Events in the Lives of Women 424
Discuss Economic Inequality Between Men and Women 424
1 Spotlight on Diversity 9.3 Gender/Racial Comparison of Median Weekly Earnings 424
Examine Sexual Harassment 427The Definition of Sexual Harassment 428Strengthening the Definition: A Macro-System
Response 429The Extent of Sexual Harassment 430Effects of Sexual Harassment 431
✦ Highlight 9.2 Confronting Sexual harassment 432
Review Sexist Language 433
Examine Rape and Sexual Assault 433
✦ Highlight 9.3 Using nonsexist language 433
Incidence of Rape 434Theoretical Views of Rape 435Common Myths About Rape 436Profile of a Rapist 437
✦ Highlight 9.4 Suggestions for Rape Prevention 438
Date Rape 439Survivors’ Reactions to Rape 440Suggestions for Counseling Rape Survivors: Keys to
Empowerment 440
Explore Intimate Partner Violence 442The Abusive Perpetrator 444The Battering Cycle 444Why Does She Stay? 444Community Responses to Empower Battered Women: Their
Alternatives 446
1 Spotlight on Diversity 9.4 Battering in Gay and lesbian Relationships 446
✦ Highlight 9.5 Stalking 448
Identify Means of Empowering Women 451
1 Spotlight on Diversity 9.5 Strategies for Empowering Women and Achieving Sexual Equality 452
Chapter Summary 452
Competency Notes 454
Web Resources 454
PART IIIYoung and Middle Adulthood
CHAPTER 10
Biological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 455A Perspective 456
Recognize the Contributions of Physical Development, Health Status, and Other Factors to Health During Young Adulthood 457
Young Adulthood 457Physical Development 458Health Status 458Breast Cancer 459Lifestyle and Good Health 462
✦ Highlight 10.1 Early Detection of Breast Cancer 463
Describe the Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood, Including Those Affecting Physical Appearance, Sense Organs, Physical Strength and Reaction Time, and Intellectual Functioning 464
Middle Adulthood 464Physical Changes in Middle Age 464
1 Spotlight on Diversity 10.1 Differential Incidence of Death 465
✦ Highlight 10.2 An Identity Crisis: When the Applause Stops 467
Describe the Midlife Crises Associated with Female Menopause and Male Climatric 469
Female Menopause 469
1 Spotlight on Diversity 10.2 Cultural Differences in Women’s Experience of Menopause 470
✦ Highlight 10.3 Osteoporosis 471
Male Climacteric 472Midlife Crisis: True or False? 473
Summarize Sexual Functioning in Middle Age 474Sexual Functioning in Middle Age 474
✦ Highlight 10.4 Five languages of love 476
Describe AIDS—Its Causes and Effects; How It Is Contracted; How Its Spread Can Be Prevented; and Understand AIDS Discrimination 479
People Living with AIDS: A Population-at-Risk 479What Causes AIDS? 479How Is AIDS Contracted? 479Diagnosis 480The Effects of HIV 480Treatment and Prevention of AIDS 480Impacts of Social and Economic Forces:
AIDS Discrimination and Oppression 481
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Contents x v
Professional Values and AIDS 481
1 Spotlight on Diversity 10.3 AIDS: A Global Epidemic 481
Chapter Summary 482
Ethical Dilemma Do You have a Duty to Inform a Person Who Is at Risk of Acquiring hIv? 483
Competency Notes 484
Web Resources 484
CHAPTER 11
Psychological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 485A Perspective 486
Describe Erickson’s Theories of Psychological Development During Young and Middle Adulthood 487
Intimacy Versus Isolation 487Generativity Versus Stagnation 488
Describe Peck’s Theory of Psychological Development During Middle Adulthood 488
Peck’s Theories of Psychological Development 488
✦ Highlight 11.1 the Key to Success in Work, and in life—Be Focused 489
Describe Levinson’s Theories of Life Structure, Life Eras, and Transitions During Adulthood 490
Levinson’s Theories of Life Structure, Life Eras, and Transitions for Men 490
Summarize Maslow’s Theory on Hierarchy of Needs 492
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 492
1 Spotlight on Diversity 11.1 Application of levinson’s theories to Women: An Evaluation 493
Describe Emotional Intelligence and Social Intelligence 494
Emotional Intelligence 494Social Intelligence 495
Describe Nonverbal Communication Cues 496Mezzo-System Interactions: Nonverbal Communication 496The Functions of Nonverbal Communication 496Posture 497Body Orientation 497Gestures 497
✦ Highlight 11.2 Eye-Accessing Cues 498
Touching 499Clothing 499Personal Space 500Territoriality 501Facial Expressions 502Physical Appearance 503The Environment 504
Summarize Glasser’s Choice Theory of Human Behavior 505
Choice Theory 505
✦ Highlight 11.3 the Impact of thoughts on Physiological Functioning 508
Describe Gawain’s Theories About Intuition and How Human Behavior Is Affected by It 509
Intuition 509
Understand the Issue of Substance Abuse 510Chemical Substance Use and Abuse 510Specific Drugs: What They Are and What They Do 511
✦ Highlight 11.4 Drugs of Abuse: Facts and Effects 512
✦ Highlight 11.5 Drug-Related Deaths of Famous People 515
✦ Highlight 11.6 Date-Rape Drugs 516
✦ Highlight 11.7 Babies Who Are Crack Exposed 519
Dependence on Alcohol and Other Drugs 524
✦ Highlight 11.8 Use of Performance-Enhancing Drugs in Baseball 525
Interaction in Family Systems: A Theoretical Approach to Drug Abuse 526
The Application of Theory to Client Situations: Treatment for the Chemically Dependent Person and His or Her Family 527
✦ Highlight 11.9 An AA Meeting 528
Understanding and Treating Codependency 530
✦ Highlight 11.10 Motivational Interviewing 531
The Relationship Between Knowledge and Assessment 533
Chapter Summary 533
Ethical Dilemma Punishing or treating Users of Prohibited Drugs? 534
Competency Notes 535
Web Resources 535
CHAPTER 12
Sociological Aspects of Young and Middle Adulthood 536A Perspective 537
Describe the Following Lifestyles and Family Forms That Young Adults May Enter Into: Marriage, Cohabitation, Single Life, Parenthood, and the Life of a Childless Couple 537
Interaction in Family Systems: Choosing a Personal Lifestyle 537
Marriage 538
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x v i Contents
✦ Highlight 12.1 theories About Why People Choose Each Other as Mates 538
Ethical Dilemma Should You Marry Someone You Are not in love With? 538
✦ Highlight 12.2 Predictive Factors leading to Marital happiness/Unhappiness 539
Cohabitation 540
✦ Highlight 12.3 Romantic love versus Rational love 541
✦ Highlight 12.4 Guidelines for Building and Maintaining a happy Marriage 542
Single Life 542Parenthood 543
✦ Highlight 12.5 Parental Gender Preferences 543
Childless Couples 544
Describe Three Major Sociological Theories About Human Behavior: Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Interactionism 545
Macro Social System Theories 545The Functionalist Perspective 546The Conflict Perspective 547The Interactionist Perspective 548
Understand Three Social Problems That Young and Middle-Aged Adults May Encounter: Poverty, Empty-Shell Marriages, and Divorce. One-Parent Families, Blended Families, and Mothers Working Outside the Home Will Also Be Discussed 550
Poverty: Impacts of Social and Economic Forces 550The Rich and the Poor 550
1 Spotlight on Diversity 12.1 Personal Income Disparities Are Astounding 550
The Problem 551Who Are the Poor? 552
✦ Highlight 12.6 the Ideology of Individualism 553
What Causes Poverty? 553
1 Spotlight on Diversity 12.2 Poverty Perpetuates Poverty 554
The Culture of Poverty: Evaluation of the Theory and Its Application to Client Situations 555
Poverty Is Functional 556Application of Functionalism to Poverty 557Application of Conflict Theory to Poverty 558Application of Interactionist Theory to Poverty 558Family Mezzo-System Problems 558Empty-Shell Marriages 558
✦ Highlight 12.7 Conflict Resolution Strategies 559
Divorce 563
✦ Highlight 12.8 Analyzing love Relationships 564
✦ Highlight 12.9 Facts About Divorce 566
✦ Highlight 12.10 the Effects of a Divorce on Children Depend on What happens After the Divorce 569
One-Parent Families 570Blended Families 571
✦ Highlight 12.11 temporary Assistance for needy Families (tAnF) 572
Mothers Working Outside the Home 576The “Sandwich” Generation 577
Understand Material on Assessing and Intervening in Family Systems 577
Assessing and Intervening in Family Systems 577Verbal and Nonverbal Communication 577Family Norms 578Family System Assessment: The Ecomap 579Family System Assessment: The Genogram 582Family Problems and Social Work Roles 583
Summarize Material on Social Work with Organizations, Including Several Theories of Organizational Behavior 587
Social Work with Organizations 587The Autocratic Model 587The Custodial Model 587
✦ Highlight 12.12 Analyzing a human Services Organization 588
The Scientific Management Model 589The Human Relations Model 589Theory X and Theory Y 590The Collegial Model 591Theory Z 591Management by Objectives 592Total Quality Management 592Summary Comments About Models of Organizational
Behavior 593Servant Leadership and Theory Y 594Knopf ’s Bureaucratic System Model and Theory X 594
✦ Highlight 12.13 value Conflicts Between a helping Professional and Bureaucracies 595
Value Orientations in Organizational Decision Making 597
Describe Liberal, Conservative, and Developmental Perspectives on Human Service Organizations 598
Liberal, Conservative, and Developmental Perspectives on Human Service Organizations 598
Conservative Perspective 599
Ethical Dilemma Are the Poor to Blame for Being Poor? 600
Liberal Perspective 600Developmental Perspective 601
Chapter Summary 602
Competency Notes 603
Web Resources 603
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Contents x v i i
CHAPTER 13
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 604A Perspective 606
Explain Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity 606Dimensions of Sexuality 606Biological dimension 606Sexual Orientation Dimension 606Gender Dimension 607The Fluidity of Sexuality 607What Does Being Gay/Lesbian Mean? 607
✦ Highlight 13.1 Review Stereotypes About lesbian and Gay People 608
✦ Highlight 13.2 the Ethical Problems of Conversion therapy 610
Bisexual People 611Numbers of Lesbian and Gay People 612Transgender Persons 613
✦ Highlight 13.3 What’s in a name? 615
Discuss Conceptual Frameworks Concerning Sexual Orientation 616
Biological Theories 616Psychosocial Theories 617The Evaluation of Theory: What Is the Answer? 617Interactionist Theory 617Ethical Issues Related to Theory 618Other Research on the Origins of Same-Sex Sexual
Orientation 618
1 Spotlight on Diversity 13.1 Address Discrimination and the Impacts of homophobia 619
Describe Lesbian and Gay Lifestyles 620Lesbian and Gay Relationships 621Sexual Interaction 622
Explore Significant Issues and Life Events for Lesbian and Gay People 622
The Impacts of Social and Economic Forces: Legal Empowerment and Social Justice 622
1 Spotlight on Diversity 13.2 Recognize Gay and lesbian Pride, Empowerment, and a Sense of Community 623
✦ Highlight 13.4 Arguments for and Against Same-Sex Marriage 627
Community Responses: Violence Against LGBT People 628
Coming Out 629
1 Spotlight on Diversity 13.3 Ethnicity and Sexual Orientation 631
Lesbian and Gay Adolescents 632
✦ Highlight 13.4 Cheryl’s Exploration of her Self-Identity and Sexual Orientation 633
Empowering Lesbian and Gay Parents 633
As Lesbians and Gay Men Age 635Gay and Lesbian People and AIDS 636
1 Spotlight on Diversity 13.4 Social Work with lGBt People: Promoting Optimal Well-Being 637
Chapter Summary 638
Competency Notes 639
Web Resources 639
PART IVLater Adulthood
CHAPTER 14
Biological Aspects of Later Adulthood 640A Perspective 642
Define Later Adulthood 642What Is Later Adulthood? 642A New View of Aging 643
1 Spotlight on Diversity 14.1 noted Individuals Prove that Age need not Be a Barrier to Productivity 643
Describe the Physiological and Mental Changes That Occur in Later Adulthood 644
Senescence 644
✦ Highlight 14.1 values and Aging: the Myth of Senility 647
Understand Contemporary Theories on the Causes of the Aging Process 651
What Causes Aging? 651
Describe Common Diseases and Major Causes of Death Among Older Adults 652
Diseases and Causes of Death Among Older People 652Factors That Influence the Aging Process 652
Ethical Dilemma Is Genetic testing Desirable? 653
✦ Highlight 14.2 health Practices and longevity 654
✦ Highlight 14.3 leading Causes of Death Among Older People in the USA 654
✦ Highlight 14.4 Alzheimer’s Disease 655
Life Expectancy 657
Understand the Importance of Placing the Highest Priority on Self-Care 658
Wellness: The Strengths Perspective 658
1 Spotlight on Diversity 14.2 longevity: Cross-Cultural Research on Centenarians 659
Physical Exercise 659Mental Activity 659Sleep Patterns 660
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x v i i i Contents
Nutrition and Diet 660Stress and Stress Management 661
✦ Highlight 14.5 Conceptualizing Stressors, Stress, and Stress-Related Illnesses 662
✦ Highlight 14.6 Traumas and Stress Disorders 664
✦ Highlight 14.7 Law of Attraction, and Becoming All That You Can Be 666
✦ Highlight 14.8 A Strategy to Improve Your Self-Concept 669
Chapter Summary 670
Competency Notes 671
Web Resources 671
CHAPTER 15
Psychological Aspects of Later Adulthood 672A Perspective 673
Describe the Developmental Tasks of Later Adulthood 674Developmental Tasks of Later Adulthood 674
Understand Theoretical Concepts About Developmental Tasks in Later Adulthood 676
Theoretical Concepts About Developmental Tasks in Later Adulthood 676
Integrity Versus Despair 676Three Key Psychological Adjustments 676Life Review 677Self-Esteem 677Life Satisfaction 677Low Status and Ageism 677Depression 678
1 Spotlight on Diversity 15.1 Triple Jeopardy: Being Female, African, American and Old 679
Spirituality and Religion 680
1 Spotlight on Diversity 15.2 Spirituality and Religion 681
Summarize Theories of Successful Aging 683Theories of Successful Aging: The Strengths Perspective 683Activity Theory 683Disengagement Theory 684Social Reconstruction Syndrome Theory 685
Understand the Impact of Key Life Events on Older People 686
The Impact of Life Events on Older People 686Marriage 686Death of a Spouse 686Widowhood 687Never Married 687Remarriage 687Gay and Lesbian Relationships 687Family System Relationships 688
Understand Guidelines for Positive Psychological Preparations for Later Adulthood 690
Guidelines for Positive Psychological Preparation for Later Adulthood: The Strengths Perspective 690
✦ Highlight 15.1 Jimmy Carter: Stumbled as President, Excelled in Later Adulthood 691
Summarize Material on Grief Management and Death Education 692
Grief Management and Death Education 692Death in Our Society: The Impact of Social Forces 692
1 Spotlight on Diversity 15.3 The Cultural-Historical Context of Death and Bereavement 693
The Grieving Process 694How to Cope with Grief 695Application of Grief Management Theory to Client
Situations 696How to Relate to a Dying Person 696
✦ Highlight 15.2 Celebration of Life Funerals 697
How to Relate to Survivors 697
✦ Highlight 15.3 Questions About Grief, Death, and Dying 698
How to Become Comfortable with the Idea of Your Own Eventual Death: The Strengths Perspective 699
Ethical Dilemma Whether to Insert a Feeding Tube 700
✦ Highlight 15.4 Life After Life 700
Chapter Summary 701
Competency Notes 702
Web Resources 702
CHAPTER 16
Sociological Aspects of Later Adulthood 703A Perspective 705
Summarize the Specific Problems Faced by Older People and the Causes of These Problems 705
Older People: A Population-at-Risk 705Problems Faced by Older People 706Emphasis on Youth: The Impact of Social and Economic
Forces 707The Increasing Older Population 707
1 Spotlight on Diversity 16.1 High Status for Older People in China, Japan, and Other Countries 707
The Fastest-Growing Age Group: Old-Old 708Early Retirement: The Impact of Social and Economic
Forces 709Financial Problems of Older People 710The Social Security System 711Death 712Elder Abuse 712
Ethical Dilemma A Right to Die? 713
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Contents x i x
Housing 714Transportation 715Crime Victimization 715Malnutrition 715Health Problems and Cost of Care 715
Describe the Current Services to Meet These Problems and Identify Gaps in These Services 716
Current Services: Macro-System Responses 716Older Americans Act of 1965 716Old Age, Survivors, Disability, and Health Insurance
(OASDHI) 716Supplemental Security Income (SSI) 717Medicare 717Prescription Drug Assistance for Seniors 718Medicaid 718Affordable Care Act 718Supplemental Nutrition Program (SNAP) 719Adult Protective Services 719Additional Programs 719
✦ Highlight 16.1 Adult Protective Services 720
Nursing Homes 721Social Work with Older People 722
Understand the Emergence of Older People as a Significant Political Force in Our Society 723
Older People: A Powerful Political Force 723
Describe a Proposal to Provide Older People with a Meaningful, Productive Social Role in Our Society 724
Changing a Macro System: Finding a Social Role for Older People 724
✦ Highlight 16.2 John Glenn, One of the Many Productive Older People 726
Chapter Summary 727
Competency Notes 727
Web Resources 728
Bibliography 729
name Index 773
Subject Index 785
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x x i
Preface
Introduction and What’s New in the Eleventh EditionAn 18-year-old man, who sees no reason to live any-more, threatens to kill himself. A couple suddenly separates after 23 years of marriage. A young fam-ily plagued by unemployment is evicted from their apartment, and moves into a tent. A demonstra-tion is staged because a local factory refuses to hire African American workers.
Why do people do what they do? The main focus of this text is on assessment—that is, this text pres-ents material to help readers understand the under-lying reasons why people act the way they do, and to help them evaluate the strengths and deficits in their biological, psychological, and social development. A variety of theories and research about human growth and development is presented. The theories cover both the internal and external variables that influence human behavior.
Understanding Human Behavior is especially written for undergraduate and graduate courses in human behavior and the social environment (HBSE). The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), the national accrediting body, provides the following guidelines for HBSE content in its 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS):
“Social workers understand theories of human be-havior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge in the assess-ment of diverse clients and constituencies, including
individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.”
“Social workers apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoreti-cal frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;”
“Social workers apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theo-retical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies;”
“Social workers apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoreti-cal frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes;”1
The EPAS (2015) also requires that a wide range of additional content be incorporated into the so-cial work curriculum. Examples of this content are: social work professional roles; social work ethi-cal principles; impact of the natural environment on humans; human diversity; human rights and social and economic justice; mechanisms of oppres-sion and discrimination; research-informed practice and practice-informed research; evidence-based in-terventions; policy practice to advance social and
1Council on Social Work Education, Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (Alexandria, VA: Council on Social Work Education, 2015).
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x x i i Preface
economic well-being and to deliver effective social work services; environmental justice; and engage-ment, assessment, intervention, and evaluation with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Content on all of these topics is pre-sented in this text.
For a number of years, social work programs have struggled to develop an HBSE curriculum that covers the extensive content mandated in the EPAS. This text is designed to facilitate the coverage of such content. The text has the following thrusts:
● It presents a vast array of theories and research that seek to explain and describe human develop-ment and behavior. It focuses on individual func-tioning within systems of various sizes (including families, groups, organizations, and communities).
● It presents substantial information on human diversity, including material on groups distin-guished by “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status.”2
● It uses a lifespan approach that allows for a de-scription of human growth and development from conception through adulthood.
● It identifies biological, psychological, sociological, cultural, and spiritual factors that influence devel-opment for each age group.3 Interactions among these systems are discussed in some depth. For many of the bio-psycho-social theories described, content about values and ethical issues is included.
● It presents material on strategies that promote so-cial and economic justice.
● It describes typical developmental tasks and mile-stones for each age group.
● It describes the impact of social and economic forces on individuals, social systems, and societies.
● It presents substantial material on self-care strate-gies for social workers. These strategies are also
2Ibid.3In some cases, the biological, psychological, and sociological variables overlap. For example, a midlife crisis often involves a combination of biological, psychological, and sociological variables. Therefore, the authors may, rather arbitrarily, cover some material under one heading (e.g., biological aspects) when a strong case can be made that it should be covered under some other heading (e.g., psychological aspects or sociological aspects).
the strategies that social workers need to convey to their clients so that the clients can make posi-tive changes.
● It presents material on the attainment and main-tenance of optimal mental and physical health and well-being. It also describes the ways in which systems promote or deter health and well-being.
● It presents material, using a four-faceted ap-proach, to evaluate theory, and describes how di-verse theories can be applied to client situations.
A major thrust of this text is to present the mate-rial in a readable fashion. Numerous case examples, photographs, and illustrations are used in present-ing provocative and controversial issues about human behavior. As much as possible, jargon-free language is used so that the reader can readily grasp theory.
The following new and expanded content has been added on a chapter-by-chapter basis:
Chapter 1
● The importance of the “natural environment” and “environmental justice” in the practice of social work
● Specification of the 9 competencies and 31 behav-iors in the 2015 Educational Policy and Accredita-tion Standards (EPAS)
Chapter 2
● Discussion of pregnancy apps
Chapter 3
● Outcome of receiving client-centered therapy
Chapter 4
● Head start and cultural responsiveness ● Trauma informed care
Chapter 5
● The key to improving the lives of others is the strengths perspective
● Cultural humility ● Black Lives Matter
Chapter 6
● Initiating kissing and sexual intimacy
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Preface x x i i i
Chapter 7
● Glasser’s theories on why some people develop a “success identity,” while others develop a “failure identity”
● Guidelines on assisting clients, and other persons, to become more assertive
Chapter 8
● Self-injury in adolescents ● Cyber bullying ● Sex trafficking
Chapter 9
● Stalking
Chapter 10
● Cyber affairs ● PrEP, a medication taken to lower the risk of
HIV infection
Chapter 11
● Allegations of the use of date-rape drugs by Bill Cosby to commit sexual assaults
● States that have legalized the sale of marijuana
Chapter 12
● Guiding principles of Total Quality Management in human service agencies
● New material on surviving, and thriving, as a so-cial worker in an agency
Chapter 13
● Gender identity ● Dimensions of sexuality ● The fluidity of sexuality ● New material on transgender persons ● Arguments for and against same-sex marriages ● New material on violence against LGBT people
Chapter 14
● The importance of social workers placing the highest priority on their self-care
● The self-care strategies used by social workers are precisely the strategies that social workers should convey to their clients
● Update leading causes of death among older peo-ple in the Unites States
● Mindfulness
Chapter 15
● June 2015 United States Supreme Court decision that same-sex couples have a constitutional right to marry
Chapter 16
● Affordable Care Act ● Supplemental Nutrition Program (SNAP)
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x x v
Charles H. Zastrow, MSW and PhD, is professor emeritus in social work at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater. He chaired the Social Work Department for 6 years at this campus. He has also been the assistant director and professor in the Social Work Program at George Williams College of Aurora University at Williams Bay, Wisconsin. He has worked as a practitioner in a variety of public and private social welfare agencies and has chaired 28 social work accreditation site visit teams for the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE). He has served two terms as a commissioner on the Commission on Accreditation of CSWE. He has been a board member of the Association of Baccalaureate Social Work Program Directors, Inc. (BPD). He has chaired The Commission on Educational Policy of CSWE. Dr. Zastrow is a licensed clinical social worker in the state of Wisconsin. He received his MSSW degree in 1966 and his PhD in social welfare in 1971 from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. He is the author of nine books, of which four are social work textbooks. He has also authored more than 45 articles in professional journals. His other social work texts are Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare (11th ed.), Social Work with Groups (9th ed.), and Generalist Social Work Practice (11th ed.).
Karen K. Kirst-Ashman, BSW, MSSW, and PhD, was a full professor and a former chairperson in the Social Work Department at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, where she taught for 28 years. She is certified as a licensed clinical social worker in the state of Wisconsin. She earned her BSW and MSSW degrees at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and her PhD in social work at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. She has worked as a practitioner and administrator in child welfare and mental health agencies. She received the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater’s Excellence in Teaching Award in 1986 and the University Outstanding Teaching Award in 2007. She has been a member of the board of directors of the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) in addition to being an accreditation site visitor. She is also a current member of BPD and NASW. She has served on the editorial board of Affilia: Journal of Women and Social Work, and as a consulting editor for many social work journals, including the Journal of Social Work Education. She is the author of numerous publications, articles, and reviews concerning social work and women’s issues. Other books she has authored or coauthored
About the Authors
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x x v i About the Authors
include Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare: Critical Thinking Perspectives (5th ed.); Human Behavior in the Macro Social Environment: An Empowerment Approach to Understanding Communities, Organization, and Groups (4th ed.); Generalist Practice with Organizations and Communities (5th ed.); The Macro Skills Workbook (2nd ed.); and Understanding Generalist Practice (8th ed.).
Sarah L. Hessenauer, BSW, MSW, PhD, is an associate professor in social work at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater. She has been in the department for ten years and is chair of the department. She earned her BSW degree in 1990 from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, her MSW in 1991 from UW-Milwaukee, and her PhD in 2011 from Loyola University of Chicago. She is a certified licensed clinical social worker in the state of Wisconsin. She has worked as a practitioner and administrator in a variety of mental health and addictions agencies. She is a Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) accreditation site visitor. She is a current member of NASW, BPD, and CSWE. She has authored several articles and is a reviewer for several social work journals.
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1
CH
AP
TE
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1
Blen
d Im
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/Sup
erst
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IntroductIon to Human BeHavIor and tHe
SocIal envIronment
Why do people behave the way they do? Are behavior and personality caused mainly by a person’s genetic makeup and given nature? Or are they due to the environment and a person’s treatment in that environment?
Human behavior and its dynamics can be remarkably complex. A fascinating exam-ple concerns the case of a boy, sometimes referred to as “the wild boy of Aveyron,” who grew up alone in the Aveyron forest of southern France at the end of the eighteenth cen-tury (Papalia, Olds, & Feldman, 2007). On various occasions, French villagers sighted
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2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
the boy, who was naked, filthy, and covered with scars, as he roamed through the wilder-ness, foraging for roots, nuts, and whatever other food he could find (Yousef, 2001).
In January 1800, the boy, eventually named Victor, was caught burrowing for veg-etables in a tanner’s garden in the French village of Saint-Sernin. Although he was only about four and a half feet tall, he appeared to be about 12 or 13 years old (Lane, 1976). He had “delicate white skin, a round face, long eyelashes, a long, slightly pointed nose, an average-sized mouth, a rounded chin, generally agreeable features, and an engaging smile.” Externally he appeared much like any other boy; however, he could make “only weird, meaningless cries,” could not speak, vehemently refused to wear clothing, and rejected any prepared food (Saskatchewan Psychology Portal, n.d.; Shattuck, 1980). Victor also failed to respond to others, neither communicating with them nor paying attention to what they were doing. It became apparent that Victor had been abandoned at an early age and, without human company, had learned to fend for himself in his own way.
Victor was eventually sent to Paris, where he came to the attention of two important Parisian physicians, Philippe Pinel and Jean-Marc Gaspard Itard. A basic question they addressed was the reasons for Victor’s behavior. They focused on the nature–nurture con-troversy. In other words, was Victor’s behavior the result of nature (i.e., inborn traits), or was it a consequence of nurture (i.e., the influence of his background, experience, and environment)? Pinel, a psychiatrist, determined that Victor was not really wild, but rather mentally deficient and an “incurable idiot” (Human Intelligence, 2004). He believed that nature had caused Victor’s pattern of behavior. But Itard, who was chief physician at the National Institution for Deaf-Mutes in Paris, disagreed. Itard credited Victor for his self-suf-ficiency and survival, asserting that Victor’s deprivation of human interaction had denied him the opportunity to learn how to fit into society. Itard believed that Victor could learn to interact, communicate, and conform if he were taught to do so. He argued that Victor’s behavior resulted from the nurturance, or lack thereof, he received from his environment.
More specific questions can be raised. Why couldn’t Victor speak? He had a horizon-tal scar across his throat, apparently caused by a knife, that may have damaged his vocal cords (Yousef, 2001). However, he could utter some sounds, which suggested that his vo-cal cords were not damaged. Could Victor hear? He would often ignore human speech and even the sound of a gunshot (Human Intelligence, 2004), yet would react to the sound of a walnut being cracked behind him, an unseen dog barking outside, or a door creaking open in the dark (Yousef, 2001). Was Victor autistic (a condition characterized by intense inner-directedness that is discussed further in Chapter 3)? Some believe he presents the first documented case of autism (FeralChildren.com, 2005; Human Intelligence, 2004).
Far ahead of his time, Itard worked with Victor for five years, using behavior modi-fication principles to teach and reinforce desired behavior (Chapter 4 elaborates on be-havior modification concepts and techniques). Victor learned to “read and speak a few words, demonstrated affection for his caretakers, and could carry out simple commands” (Human Intelligence, 2004). Consider what great accomplishments these were! How-ever, Itard was greatly disappointed that Victor could not achieve much more and be-come “normal.” Victor never learned to communicate well; nor did he care much about interpersonal interactions. His focal point continued to be his own desires. Ultimately, he could not survive independently in the civilized world as he had in the wild. Victor spent the remainder of his life being cared for by Madame Guerin, who had been Itard’s housekeeper. He was in his early forties when he died in 1828.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 3
Ethical Question 1.11
Was it ethical for Dr. Itard and the others to remove Victor from the wild against his will?
Victor’s story raises many questions about how human behavior and personality de-velop. Why do we behave the way we do? How much of our behavior is a product of our genetic heritage? To what extent do we think, feel, and interact the way we do because we’ve been taught to do so by other people—our family, school, the media, our culture, and our government? Understanding Human Behavior will explore various dimensions of human behavior to enhance your understanding of why people have de-veloped as they have and why they behave the way they do.
A PerspectiveThe goals of this book are to explore the dynamics of human behavior and prepare a foundation of knowledge upon which to build social work practice skills. What do we mean, exactly, by human behavior and the social environment, the title of this book? First, let’s break down and define the terminology. Human behavior involves people’s ac-tions, conduct, and responses as they go through life. Individuals, of course, demonstrate human behavior. Groups of people ranging from couples to families to communities to nations also exhibit human behavior. People, then, behave within the context of their en-vironment. An environment includes “the surroundings or conditions” in which people or other organisms live and function (Lindberg, 2007, p. 460). For our purposes, the social environment involves the systems of other people, including economic, political, legal, social, spiritual, and cultural, with whom any individual interacts as he or she operates within the encompassing environment.
Why is understanding human behavior and the social environment important for so-cial workers and other helping professionals? Social workers help people solve problems and get access to resources. They must recognize what conditions people are faced with in their social environments and how these conditions affect people’s behavior and functioning. The social environment may vary on many levels. It may be urban or rural. It may be wealthy with many resources or impoverished with very few. It may be liberal or conservative. On an international level, it may be democratic, socialist, or communist. Social workers must understand the social environment in order to help people figure out what options are available to them and get the resources they need.
1Ethics are standards that guide behavior. Ethical questions such as this will be raised throughout this book to encourage students to engage in ethical decision making by addressing professional values and using professional ethical standards.
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4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
One of the primary steps in the helping process—and the focus of this book—is as-sessment, the identification and exploration of variables affecting people’s behavior, functioning, and well-being. Assessment for social workers entails investigating people’s strengths, problems, needs, and issues to begin understanding how to help people and improve their lives.
Human behavior can be fascinating and, sometimes, quite puzzling. For example, I (Karen Kirst-Ashman) once got home from work, walked into the master bedroom, and observed my partner ironing the mattress. Befuddled, I thought, “This is a new one. What in the world is he doing?” Mattress ironing had never been part of my repertoire of logical behavior. As it turned out, my partner, who is an engineer, explained his actions quite rationally. We had recently bought a new mattress, and its covering was so slip-pery that neither a mattress cover nor sheets would stay in place. This was quite annoy-ing when we were trying to sleep. My partner was using the iron to attach a sheet with Stitch Witchery, a bonding tape that melts and secures materials like hems after heat is applied to it. It’s an easy way to get cloth materials to stick together if you don’t want to bother with needle and thread. My partner’s idea was that we’d put another sheet over the one bonded to the mattress; in effect, the bonded sheet would be a permanent—and nonslippery—mattress cover. As it turned out, his plan worked. The sheets no longer slipped off. This experience reinforced my hypothesis that people always have a reason for doing what they do, as baffling as it might appear at the time.
Social work is unique in that it emphasizes a focus that stretches far beyond that of an individual. Assessment in social work addresses all aspects of a client’s situation. Many times, it’s not the client’s fault that problems exist. Rather, something outside the client may be instigating the problem. The client’s whole family may not be functioning well. There may be difficulties beyond the client’s control in his or her workplace. Ex-isting social service organizations may not be providing what clients need. Resources may be too difficult to obtain, inadequate, or even nonexistent. Organizational policies or laws affecting the client may be unfair. As part of assessment, social workers focus on families, work groups and environments, social agencies, organizations, neighbor-hoods, communities, and even local, state, and national government in addition to the individual. Figuring out what to do about any specific problem may directly involve any of these entities.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Explain the importance of foundation knowledge for social work with an emphasis on assessmentLO 2 Review the organization of this book that emphasizes lifespan developmentLO 3 Describe important concepts for understanding human behav-ior (that are stressed throughout the book and include human diversity, cultural competency, oppression, populations-at-risk, empowerment, the strengths perspective, resiliency, human rights, and critical think-ing about ethical issues)
EP 6a,EP 7b,EP 8b,
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 5
LO 4 Employ a conceptual framework for understanding human behavior and the social environ-ment: ecosystems theoryLO 5 Recognize people’s involvement with multiple systems in the social environmentLO 6 Recognize social worker rolesLO 7 Identify knowledge, skills, and values necessary for generalist social work practice*
LO 1 Explain the Importance of Foundation Knowledge for Social Work with an Emphasis on Assessment**In order to recognize the significance of foundation knowledge, including that presented in this book, the purpose and process of social work must be understood. Social work may be viewed as having three major thrusts (Baer & Federico, 1978, p. 68). First, social workers can help people solve their problems and cope with their sit-uations. Second, social workers can work with systems, such as social agencies, organizations, communities, and government bureaucracies, so that people can have bet-ter access to the resources and services they need. Third, social workers can “link people with systems” (Baer & Federico, 1978, p. 68), so that clients themselves have
*Note that “helping hands” icons of two hands embracing a sun are located next to the learning objectives just cited and other content throughout the book. Accredited social work programs must demonstrate that they’re teaching students to be proficient in nine core competencies that are operationalized and the 31 behaviors designated by the Council on Social Work Education (CSWE, 2015) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS). Students require knowledge in order to develop skills and become competent. Our intent here is to specify what chapter content and knowledge coincides with the development of specific competencies and behaviors. (This ultimately is intended to assist in a social work program’s accreditation process.) Throughout each chapter, icons such as those located on this page call attention to the location of EPAS-related content. Each icon identifies what competency or behavior is relevant by specifying the designated Educational Policy (EP) reference number beneath it. “Competency Notes” are provided at the end of each chapter that describe how EPAS competencies and behaviors are related to designated content in the chapter. EPAS competencies and their alphabetized behaviors are cited in the inside covers of this book.**Note that content headings in chapters throughout the book are tagged with learning objectives (e.g., LO 1-1, LO 1-4). These indicate what content relates to which learning objective.
access to resources and opportunities. Much of social work, then, involves social functioning.
People interact with other people, with organiza-tions (such as social service agencies), and with small groups (such as families and colleagues in the work-place). Social work targets not only how individuals behave, but also how these other systems and people affect each other.
An example is a family of five in which both parents work at low-paying jobs in order to make a marginal living. The father works at a small, non-unionized leather-processing plant. The mother works as a waitress at a short-order diner. Suddenly, the fa-ther is laid off. For a short time, the family survives on unemployment compensation. When that runs out, they face a serious financial crisis. Despite a great ef-fort, the father is unable to find another job. In des-peration, the family applies for public assistance. Due to some unidentified error in the lengthy application process, the payments are delayed for two months.
Meanwhile, the family is forced to eat poorly and is unable to pay rent and utility bills. The phone is dis-connected, the electricity is turned off, and the land-lord threatens to evict them. Reacting to the externally imposed stress, the parents begin to fight verbally and physically. The children complain because they are hungry. This intensifies the parents’ sense of defeat and disillusionment. As a result of stress and frustra-tion, the parents hit the children to keep them quiet.
Although this example has not been presented in detail, it illustrates that people are integrally in-volved with other systems in their environment.
A social worker reviewing this case might assess how the family and other systems in the environment have had an impact on each other. First, the father’s life is seriously affected by his place of employment, the leather factory, when he is laid off. He then seeks unemployment compensation, which affects that sys-tem by dipping into its funds. When those benefits
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6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
cease, the family then affects the public assistance system by drawing on its funds. The public assis-tance system, in turn, impacts the family by delaying their payments. The resulting frustration affects all family members, as the parents are unable to cope with their stress. The entire situation can be viewed as a series of dynamic interactions between people and their environment.
The Profession of Social WorkThe National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is the primary professional organization for social workers in the United States. NASW (1982) defines social work as follows:
Social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, or communities to enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and to create societal conditions favorable to their goals.
Social Work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: helping people obtain tangible services; providing counseling and psychotherapy for individuals, families, and groups; helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services; and participating in relevant legislative processes.
The profession of social work is recognized as having the primary responsibility to implement so-ciety’s mandate to provide safe, constructive, and effective social services. Social work is thus distinct from other professions (such as psychology and psy-chiatry) because it has the responsibility and man-date to provide social services.
A social worker needs training and expertise in a wide range of areas to effectively handle problems faced by individuals, groups, families, organizations, and the larger community. Although most profes-sions are increasingly becoming more specialized (e.g., most medical doctors now specialize in one or two areas), social work continues to emphasize a generic (broad-based) approach. The practice of social work is analogous to the old general practice of medicine. A general (or family) practitioner has professional education to handle a wide range of common medical problems; a social worker has pro-fessional education to handle a wide range of com-mon social and personal problems.
The foundation of social work is described in Highlight 1.1. The knowledge, skills, and values needed for generalist social work practice are de-scribed in greater detail later in the chapter.
The Process of Social Work: The Importance of AssessmentAccurate assessment is a critically important step in the social work process. Information about the problem or situation needs to be gathered, ana-lyzed, and interpreted. Regardless of the specific type of situation, careful thought is necessary in order to make effective decisions about how to proceed. Assessment also involves basic knowl-edge and assumptions about human behavior. There are always reasons why people behave the way they do.
For example, a social worker who is trying to help a potentially suicidal adolescent needs certain types of information. The worker needs to know some of the reasons why people consider committing suicide so that he or she knows what questions to ask, how to respond to and treat the person, and what alterna-tives and supports to pursue.
Additionally, the worker must be able to identify what resources are readily available to suicidal ado-lescents. How can the crises be addressed immedi-ately, simply to keep them alive? What supportive resources are available to keep them from suicidal thoughts in the future? Where can a social worker re-fer them to get help? (Chapter 7 explores adolescent suicide in greater depth.)
Identifying and Evaluating Alternative Courses of ActionClients come to social workers with problems and needs. The worker must understand these problems and needs in order to help the client. One primary task for the practitioner is to help the client define the alternatives available to him or her. Often peo-ple have tunnel vision: because of stress or habit or lack of experience, they can fail to realize that various alternatives exist. Not only must alterna-tives be defined, but they also must be evaluated. The positive and negative consequences of each alternative should be clearly stated and weighed. Figure 1.1 illustrates the process of evaluating alternatives.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 7
Much of generalist social work practice involves individual clients and small groups. Highlight 1.2, “Case Example: Unplanned Pregnancy,” shows how an individual client might be helped to iden-tify the various alternatives available, evaluate the consequences of each, and finally select a course of action.
Finaldecision
1.2.3.
Potential Alternatives Consequences
Pros ConsPros ConsPros Cons
FIGURE 1.1 Social Workers Help Clients Identify Alternatives and Evaluate the Consequences of Each
HIGHLIGHT 1.1
Generalist Social Work PracticeThere used to be an erroneous belief that a social worker was a caseworker (who worked with individuals and families), a group worker (who worked with groups), or a community organizer (who worked on people’s behalf in organizations and communities). Practicing social workers know that such a belief is faulty because every social worker is a change agent working with individuals, groups, families, organizations, and the larger community. Social workers today are generalists. A generalist practitioner is one who uses a wide range of knowledge and skills to help people with an extensive array of problems and issues. These include anything from personal issues that affect an individual to extensive, far-reaching problems that involve entire communities. The amount of time spent at these levels varies from worker to worker, but every worker will, at times, work at each of these levels and therefore needs training in all of them.
The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE, the national accrediting entity for baccalaureate and master’s programs in social work) requires that all bachelor’s (BSW) and master’s (MSW) programs train students in generalist social work practice. MSW programs, in addition, usually require students to select and study in an area of concentration. They generally offer several choices, such as family therapy, administration, corrections, or clinical social work.
The Council on Social Work Education (2015), in Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards, defines generalist practice as follows:
Generalist practice is grounded in the liberal arts and the person-in-environment framework. To promote human and social well-being, generalist practitioners use a range of
prevention and intervention methods in their practice with diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities based on scientific inquiry and best practices. The generalist practitioner identifies with the social work profession end applies ethical principles and critical thinking in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Generalist practitioners engage diversity in their practice and advocate for human rights and social and economic justice. They recognize, support, and build on the strengths and resiliency of all human beings. They engage in research-informed practice and are proactive in responding to the impact of context on professional practice.
This text focuses on the generalist-practice approach in social work by describing a variety of assessment strategies. Once you have learned these strategies, you can select the approaches that hold the most promise in facilitating positive changes in your clients.
In working with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities, social workers use a problem-solving approach. The process can be described in a variety of ways, but includes these steps:
1. Identify as precisely as possible the problem or problems; in other words, conduct an assessment of the situation.
2. Generate possible alternative solutions, evaluate their potential effectiveness, and establish a plan of action for intervention.
3. Implement the plan and carry out the intervention.4. Evaluate the intervention’s effectiveness.5. Terminate the process.
LO 2 Review the Organization of This Book That Emphasizes Lifespan DevelopmentUnderstanding and assessing human behavior in-cludes being knowledgeable about human devel-opment. It also involves comprehension of the wide range of issues facing people as they progress through life. For a coherent approach to changes that take place during a person’s lifespan, this text will assume a chronological perspective. The lifes-pan is divided up into four main phases: infancy and childhood, adolescence, young and middle adulthood, and later adulthood. Three chapters, respectively
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8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
focusing on biological, psychological, and social de-velopment, address each life phase.
Biological development and theories concern the physical aspects of a person’s life. For example, bi-ological dimensions for children include when they begin to walk and develop coordination. For adoles-cents, biological development includes puberty and the physical changes related to it. Biological aspects for older adults concern the physical changes that normally occur as people age.
Psychological development and theories emphasize individuals’ functioning and cognitive or thought processes. Psychological aspects concern how people think about themselves, others, and the environment around them. For children, this includes the gradual development from more concrete to more abstract
thought. Development of a sense of morality is in-volved. As life progresses, people may make great in-tellectual contributions involving scientific discovery or artistic expression. They may also experience is-sues concerning mental health, such as depression or eating disorders.
Finally, social development and theories address people’s interaction with others around them in the social environment. Children live within the social context of their family. They develop their social lives as they start interacting and playing with other children. As people continue through life, social dimensions include interaction with friends and participation in work groups. They may find signifi-cant others as partners and/or start families of their own. Many join organizations for political, social,
HIGHLIGHT 1.2
case example: unplanned PregnancyMona, 16, is a high school sophomore who has just found out that she is two months pregnant. The father is Fred, a 17-year-old high school junior.
Mona and Fred have been dating for two years. They think they love each other. Mona is a vivacious, outgoing cheerleader, and Fred is a muscular, handsome quarterback on the school football team. They are both involved in school activities and have never thought very much about the future.
Mona hasn’t told Fred about being pregnant. She’s very confused about what to do. She doesn’t know how he’ll react. Mona hasn’t told her parents either. They’re very religious, and Mona is afraid they’ll be terribly disappointed in her. She doesn’t know what to do.
Mona finally gets up enough courage to talk to the school social worker, Ms. Peterson. Ms. Peterson is a warm, empathetic individual who encourages Mona to talk about her situation. Mona shares her shock and dismay over what is happening. She had simply avoided thinking about contraception or possible pregnancy. It had been easier not to worry about it.
With Ms. Peterson’s encouragement, Mona considers her alternatives. One alternative would be to have an abortion. The positive consequence of that would be a relatively fast termination of the problem and its implications. The negative consequences would include the cost, any difficulty Mona might encounter in setting up an appointment, and any physical discomfort the procedure would cause. The most serious negative consequence for Mona would be the guilt she says she would feel. She believes that abortion is morally wrong.
A second alternative would be to keep the baby and raise it herself. The positive consequence would be the fact that she
would accept responsibility for the child she has conceived. The negative consequences would be the financial, social, and educational difficulties she would have to face in order to support and care for her child.
A third alternative would be to keep the child and eventually marry Fred. Mona feels that this is a rather uncertain alternative. She doesn’t know if Fred would want to get married. Although the positive consequence would be a two-parent home for the baby, Mona doesn’t feel that either she or Fred would be ready for the responsibilities of marriage, and she would have to live with her parents until they were ready.
A fourth alternative would be to have the baby and place it up for adoption. The positive consequences would be that her baby would live and have a home. The negative consequences would be that she would have to face the social consequences of being a pregnant high school sophomore. The other major negative consequence would be the pain and regret she would experience when she gave up her baby.
Ms. Peterson should not, nor does she want to, make Mona’s decision for her. It is up to Mona to weigh the positive and negative consequences of each alternative and make a decision. However, Ms. Peterson helps Mona think through her situation and her various alternatives.
Mona finally decides to have the baby and place it up for adoption. After weighing each positive and negative consequence within her own personal value system, she decides that this is the best route for her to take. She knows she will have to talk to Fred and to her parents first, but feels that at least she has defined her own perspective.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 9
recreational, or professional reasons. Some become great leaders who initiate and implement major social change.
Considered together, these aspects of develop-ment may be referred to as bio-psycho-social de-velopment. As Highlight 1.3 explains, these three dimensions integrally affect each other. Some-times, the dividing lines among them are not clear cut. For instance, where does psychological devel-opment end and social development begin? Con-sider young people who attend school. Children first begin to attend school when they reach a certain biological age. A goal is to learn and de-velop thinking ability, a psychological dimension. Yet, school also provides a major social context in which children develop communication and inter-action skills. People psychologically think about both gaining knowledge and developing their so-cial relationships during this period of biological development.
Because of the importance of human diversity and its effects on human behavior, three chapters on this topic are interspersed throughout the book. These chapters focus on ethnocentrism and racism, gender roles, and sexual orientation. (Note that con-tent on various aspects of human diversity, including aspects of cultural and spiritual development, are also infused throughout the chapters on biological, psychological, and social development.) Figure 1.2 summarizes the chapter layout of this book.
Common Life EventsThroughout each of the life periods—infancy and childhood, adolescence, young and middle adult-hood, and later adulthood—people tend to expe-rience common life events related to biological, psychological, and social development that occur at certain times of life. For example, adolescence is a time when people establish an identity. Adolescents strive for independence and search for a place to fit into social peer groups. Sometimes adolescence is even more stressful. It may be marked by running away from home or by delinquency.
Marriage and having children are often charac-teristic events of early and middle adulthood. Some-times people face unplanned pregnancy and single parenthood during this time of life. Some people must deal with divorce. Life events in later adulthood include retirement and readjustments to married life when children leave home. Many older adults remain deeply involved in family and community life, as pre-dicted by activity theory. However, disengagement theory predicts that others will become increasingly isolated and detached from society (Santrock, 2012b). Additionally, many older adults must cope with in-creasingly more serious health problems and illnesses.
These experiences or life events—identity crises, marriage and children, retirement, and detachment— all tend to happen during certain periods of life. Each of these common events will be addressed within the context of the time of life when it generally occurs.
HIGHLIGHT 1.3
Bio-Psycho-Social developmental dimensions affect each otherBecause people are complex, social workers should focus on the dynamic interaction among biological, psychological, and social aspects of development. Various aspects of development act together to affect an individual’s overall growth and maturity.
Consider a depressed adolescent. Although his psychological state, or depression, may be the presenting problem, problems related to other systems may also be evident. His psychological depression may cause him to withdraw from others and become isolated. Thus, his social interaction may be drastically affected. He may stop eating and/or exercising, which would have a significant impact on his biological system. (Chapter 6 explores the biological development and Chapter 7 the psychological development of adolescents in much greater detail.)
Another example involves an alcohol-addicted adult. Her drinking affects her biological, psychological, and social development. Biologically, she loses weight and has frequent physical problems such as severe hangover headaches. Her physical health affects her psychological health in that she frequently becomes disgusted with herself. Her psychological condition affects her interactions with those close to her, and they begin to avoid her. Hence, her social interaction and development are affected. Social isolation, in turn, enhances her psychological desire to drink and escape, and her physical condition continues to deteriorate. (Chapter 11 discusses further the dynamics of alcoholism and its effects.)
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10 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
The variety of experiences that may be considered typical is great. However, there are certain life events that social workers are frequently called upon to help people cope with. We will arbitrarily select and focus on some of these experiences because of their relevance to practice.
Typical Developmental MilestonesTypical developmental milestones include those sig-nificant biological, psychological, emotional, intellec-tual, and social points of development that typically occur in a person’s lifespan. This category focuses on the individual as a distinct entity. It provides a per-spective on what can be considered typical. Topics in-clude motor development, personality development, motivation, social development, and learning.
For example, consider a young child’s typical mo-tor development. By age three or four, most children begin to jump, hop, run, operate a tricycle, employ a fork effectively, and use a pair of scissors (Berk, 2012a). (Chapter 2 profiles typical developmental milestones for children.)
Or consider the typical developmental occur-rences for older adults. Older persons tend to have important changes in their sleeping patterns, such as taking longer to fall asleep and typically sleeping for shorter time periods at night (Ancoli-Israel & Alessi, 2005; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). (Chapter 14 further discusses the changes in sleeping patterns commonly experienced by older people.)
In order to distinguish between what is typical and what is atypical, one must have a clear under-standing of typical developmental milestones at any age. The term typical is used here to refer to levels of functioning that are considered appropriate for a particular age level. Social work practitioners must be able to distinguish between situations that merit intervention and those that do not. Much time and effort can be wasted on trying to solve problems that are really not problems at all. For instance, it is need-less to worry about a baby who is not walking at the age of 12 months. However, it may merit investiga-tion if that baby is still not beginning to walk by the age of 24 months. Likewise, consider the older adult with sleeping problems. It may be senseless to
Lifespan Development
Infancy &Childhood Chapters
Biologicaldevelopment
Psychologicaldevelopment
Socialdevelopment
Adolescence Chapters
Young & MiddleAdulthood Chapters
LaterAdulthoodChapters
2 6 10 14
3 7 11 15
4 8 12 16
Ethnocentrism& racism
Gender roles& sexism
Sexualorientation
Chapters
Aspects of Human Diversity
5
9
13
FIGURE 1.2 Organization of the Text
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 11
worry about a tendency to sleep lightly when that is simply a typical sign of age. Social workers may help people adjust their expectations so that they are more reasonable. People can be helped to stop wor-rying about what is really the typical state of things. On the other hand, sleeping problems at the age of 50 may merit further exploration. At this earlier point in life, such problems may be caused by stress or some physiological problem.
Typical developmental milestones provide a base-line for assessing human behavior. The extent of the problem or abnormality can be assessed only to the extent that it deviates from what is typical.
LO 3 Describe Important Concepts for Understanding Human BehaviorBecause of their significance in assessing and un-derstanding human behavior, we will spend some time introducing several major concepts here. They involve themes that will be addressed throughout the book. The first cluster of ideas includes hu-man diversity, cultural competency, oppression, and
populations-at-risk, all of which are somewhat re-lated. The second grouping entails empowerment, the strengths perspective, and resiliency, which are also interconnected. The third important dimension discussed here involves critical thinking about ethi-cal issues.
Human Diversity, Cultural Competency, Oppression, and Populations-at-RiskSocial workers must be aware of human differences and the effects they have on human behavior. Hu-man diversity is the vast range of differences among groups, including those related to “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gen-der identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spiri-tuality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (Council on Social Work Education [CSWE], 2015). Highlight 1.4 elaborates on the importance of one aspect of human diversity—culture.
Anytime a person can be identified as belonging to a group that differs in some respect from the ma-jority of others in society, that person is subject to the effects of that diversity, including discrimination and oppression. Discrimination is the act of treating
HIGHLIGHT 1.4
culture and the Importance of cultural competencyOne significant aspect of human diversity is culture, the configuration of shared attitudes, values, goals, spiritual beliefs, social expectations, arts, technology, and behaviors that characterize a broader society in which people live. It’s vital for social workers to learn to understand and appreciate the various cultural values, beliefs, and practices of their clients. A goal is to achieve cultural competency “the mastery of a particular set of knowledge, skills, policies, and programs used by the social worker that address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities” (Lum, 2005, p. 4). Cultural competency involves cross-cultural understanding, the ability to appreciate and compare differences and similarities between and among different cultures, including your own. Winkelman (2005) explains the significance of cultural competency:
A general cross-cultural orientation covers the general dynamics of intercultural interactions . . . [It provides] perspectives for developing productive and less-stressful
relations with members of different cultures by understanding the dynamics of cross-cultural contact . . . A central aspect of general cross-cultural orientation is an understanding of the culturally relative nature of beliefs and behavior. This perspective provides a basis for acceptance of other cultures as meaningful and rational. Another important aspect is development of cultural self-awareness, particularly of one’s values, prejudices and beliefs. Effective intercultural relations require an awareness of one’s cultural biases that can block acceptance and understanding of other cultures. Specific cross-cultural orientations provide information about a particular culture, region or ethnic group, covering information such as the group’s history, cultural system, normative social behavior, politics, beliefs and other information necessary for successful adaptation to interpersonal interaction with people from that culture. (p. 13)
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12 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
people differently because they belong to some group (e.g., racial or religious) rather than on merit. Op-pression involves putting unfair and extreme limita-tions and constraints on members of an identified group. Picture a woman in an all-male business es-tablishment. Think of a 62-year-old person applying for a sales job in a department store where everyone else is under 30. Or consider an African American applying for membership in a country club that has no other members who are people of color. (People of color “is a collective term that refers to the major groups of African, Latino, Asian, and First Nations Peoples [Native Americans] who have been distin-guished from the dominant society by color” [Lum, 2011, p. 129.]) A population-at-risk, then, is any group of “people who share some identifiable characteristic that places them at greater risk of social and eco-nomic deprivation and oppression than the general mainstream of society” (Kirst-Ashman, 2007, p. 57).
Privilege, Power, and AcclaimPeople in any society might be placed on a con-tinuum based on social status and the amount of influence they have over others. People who experi-ence discrimination and oppression might be placed on one end of the continuum. People who have ex-ceptional “privilege, power, and acclaim” might be situated on the other. Power is “the ability to achieve one’s goals despite the opposition of oth-ers”; in other words, power involves “the ability to do whatever you want because no one can stop you” (Leon-Guerrero, 2011, p. 48). Power may entail us-ing “force, authority, manipulation, or persuasion” to make others alter their behavior (Eitzen, Zinn, & Smith, 2014, p. 45).
Privilege entails special rights or benefits enjoyed because of elevated social, political, or economic sta-tus. Privilege is often related to prestige, “the amount of social respect or standing given to an individual based on occupation. We assign higher prestige to occupations that require specialized education or training [e.g., physicians], . . . or that make more money [e.g., CEOs of major corporations]” (Leon-Guerrero, 2011, p. 48). Acclaim is “enthusiastic ap-proval or praise” (Nichols, 1999, p. 8). People who experience acclaim, such as high-level politicians and famous entertainers, maintain broad influence over what other people think. People who have privi-lege and acclaim have greater power to influence and control the destinies of others.
Eitzen and his colleagues (2014) make several points regarding power, wealth, and status in the United States:
● “The inequality gap in the United States is the widest of all the industrialized nations. The gap continues to grow especially because of tax benefits for the affluent . . .
● These tax policies, in addition to increasing the unequal distribution of wealth, increase the national debt, reduce government spending for programs to help the less fortunate, and weaken public institutions2 that benefit [all members of] society. The widening gap increases the political influence of the wealthy . . .
● The power elite in society (those who control the government and the largest corporations) tend to come from backgrounds of privilege and wealth. Their decisions tend to benefit the wealthy disproportionately. The power elite is not organized and conspiratorial, but the interests of the wealthy are served, nevertheless, by the way in which society is organized. This bias occurs through influence over elected and appointed officials, . . . [social and economic policies that affect the distribution of wealth, and prestige and acclaim that serve as a] control of the masses.” (p. 52)
Group Membership and ValuesMembership in any group provides a certain set of environmental circumstances. A Chicano adolescent from a Mexican American inner-city neighborhood has a different social environment from that of an upper-middle-class adolescent of European descent living in the well-to-do suburbs of the same city.
Sensitivity to group differences is critical in un-derstanding any individual’s behavior. This is im-portant from two perspectives. First, the values or orientation of a particular group will affect how an individual behaves. For instance, an individual with a sexual orientation for the same gender may very well choose to participate in social activities with others of the same orientation. The individual might tend to avoid bars and nightclubs where heterosexual singles meet and might join activities or social clubs aimed at helping people with a sexual orientation to-ward the same gender to meet each other.
2In this context, an institution is a well-established custom or cultural expectation in a society; examples are public education and public assistance (welfare).
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 13
The Societal Perspective on Group DifferencesThere is a second important perspective concerning sensitivity to group differences. The first perspective focused on how the group member feels and chooses to act. The second perspective directs attention to how other people and groups in the social environ-ment view the (diverse) group in question. The diverse group may be the object of prejudgments (predeter-mined assumptions made without assessing facts) and stereotypes (standardized views about people who be-long to some group that do not take into account indi-vidual qualities and differences). Each group member tends to lose his or her individual identity and assume the group identity in the eyes of others in the envi-ronment. To these outsiders, the characteristics of the group become the characteristics of the individual, whether or not the individual actually has them.
For example, consider a young, single African American mother of three young children who is re-ceiving public aid. She applies for a service job be-hind the counter of a local delicatessen. The deli is run by a lower-middle-class white family that holds many of the larger society’s traditional values. These values include the outdated ideas that the head of the household must be a man and that women should stay home and take care of the children. The owner of the deli, a man and head of the family, interviews the young woman and makes several assumptions.
The first assumption is that the woman has no business not being married. The second is that she should be staying at home with her children. The third assumption is that the woman, because of her color, is probably lazy and undependable. He uses the excuse that she has no experience in this particu-lar job and refuses to hire her.
This young woman has run up against similar, seri-ous difficulties in her job search. In addition, she may have problems getting adequate day care for her young children. Taken together, all these difficulties may pre-vent her from finding a job and getting off public aid.
In assessing behavior, then, one must be aware of limitations imposed by the environment. Otherwise, impossible alternatives might be pursued. In the case we presented above, for example, a social worker who does not understand these things might continue to pressure the young woman to go out and get a job. Since she was already trying and failing, however, this additional pressure might make her turn against the social worker and the social service system. She might just give up.
Awareness of how prejudgments and stereotypes affect people forms the basis of professional values, one of the foundation blocks of social work. These values include respect for each individual and that in-dividual’s right to self-determination; the importance of confidentiality; commitment to social justice, ad-vocacy, and positive social change; the appreciation of human diversity; and the right to equal treatment and equal opportunity (CSWE, 2015; Reamer, 2013).
Focus on Empowerment, the Strengths Perspective, and ResiliencyThe second cluster of vital concepts for understanding human behavior includes empowerment, the strengths perspective, and resiliency. These constitute ongoing themes stressed throughout social work practice.
EmpowermentEmpowerment is the “process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individu-als can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). The empowerment ap-proach is a perspective on practice that provides “ways of thinking about and doing practice” (Lee, 2001, p. 32). Throughout the assessment process and our quest to understand human behavior, it’s criti-cal to emphasize, develop, and nurture strengths and positive attributes in order to empower people. Em-powerment aims at enhancing the power and control that individuals, groups, families, and communities have over their destinies.
We have also determined that some groups of people suffer from stereotypes, discrimination, and oppression. It is social work’s task to empower cli-ents in general and members of oppressed groups in particular.
Cowger and Snively (2002) explain further:
Promoting empowerment means believing that people are capable of making their own choices and decisions. It means not only that human beings possess the strengths and potential to resolve their own difficult life situations, but also that they increase their strength and contribute to the well-being of society by doing so. The role of the social worker is to nourish, encourage, assist, enable, support, stimulate, and unleash the strengths within people; to illuminate the strengths available to people in their own environments; and to promote equity and justice at all levels of society. To do
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14 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
that, the social worker helps clients articulate the nature of their situations, identify what they want, explore alternatives for achieving those desires and then achieve them. (p. 110)
The Strengths PerspectiveFocusing on strengths can provide a sound basis for empowerment. Sometimes referred to as the strengths perspective, this orientation focuses on cli-ent resources, capabilities, knowledge, abilities, mo-tivations, experience, intelligence, and other positive qualities that can be put to use to solve problems and pursue positive changes.
Assessment of human behavior establishes the basis for understanding people’s problems and is-sues, and subsequently helping them improve their lives. Social workers address people’s problems every day, but it’s the identification of people’s strengths that provides clues for how to solve their problems and improve their life situations. Saleebey (2013, pp. 17–20) cites at least four principles involved in the strengths perspective:
1. Every individual, group, family, and community has strengths. The case example in the next section concerning the Fernandez family will illustrate this idea.
2. Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be in-jurious, but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity. Have you ever experienced a seri-ous problem or disappointment that turned out to have opened other, perhaps better, opportuni-ties for you? Days after my 16th birthday, I was in a car accident in which my face was crushed. (It happened at about midnight on Friday the 13th, amazingly enough.) My injuries were painful and required four years of plastic surgery. This expe-rience taught me the value and superficiality of exterior beauty, gave me a much more realistic approach to viewing and understanding people, and made me tougher.
Another trauma occurred when I applied for a second master’s degree after receiving my MSW, and was turned down. I was devastated. However, the experience forced me to get out of school and into social work practice, which turned out to be by far the more gratifying and constructive choice.
3. Assume that you do not know the upper lim-its of the capacity to grow and change, and take
individual, group, and community aspirations se-riously. You don’t have a crystal ball telling you what opportunities and choices will confront you in your life. So many students come to me wor-rying about their choice of major or what will happen after they graduate. It’s important to ap-preciate the strengths you have and to grasp op-portunities as they occur. You don’t yet know what chances will present themselves to you or where your career will take you.
4. Every environment is full of resources. Resources can provide great strengths. One of social work-ers’ major roles is to link clients with the re-sources they need to empower them to improve their lives.
Multiple Sources of Strengths: A Case ExampleAs mentioned, empowerment through focusing on strengths can occur on the individual, family, group, organizational, and community levels (Saleebey, 2013). For instance, consider the following case situ-ation of a family coming to the attention of a so-cial service agency (Haulotte & Kretzschmar, 2001, pp. 30–31). This provides an example of how a strengths perspective is helpful in assessment:
The Fernandez family consists of Carmen, the 35-year-old wife and mother; Juan, the 36-year-old husband and father; and their two daughters, O ra l i a , 1 3 , a n d M a r i , 1 4 . T h e fa m i ly h a d immigrated to the United States seven years ago from Mexico. Both Carmen and Juan had finished primary school, which is equivalent to attaining a sixth-grade education. In this country, they had been taking English lessons and were becoming quite fluent. Oralia and Mari both attended the same school and were doing reasonably well. When Juan and Carmen immigrated here, they had high hopes of attaining a better life for themselves and their daughters.
Three months ago, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service officers found Juan doing construction work at a site near the Fernandez apartment. After determining that his papers were not in order, the officers then deported Juan to Mexico.
Although the family has always experienced financial problems, these problems got much worse when Juan had to leave. Carmen is finding it very difficult making ends meet without her husband being with her. Juan did get a low-paying,
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 15
part-time job in a Mexican border town. He is sending his family some money, but not much. He also must support himself and is trying to save money to return to the United States. Carmen works as a checker in a grocery store and just got a second part-time job as a janitor. She thus works from 6:30 a.m. until 11:00 p.m. on most days. Fortunately, bus transportation to and from work is readily available.
The current crisis is that right after Carmen got home last night, a police officer arrived at her door with Oralia. He had found her alone in a nearby park, which violated the local curfew. Apparently, Oralia and Mari had been arguing intensively about something when Oralia stomped off. (Now neither of them can remember what the argument was about.) Carmen told the officer that she was sick to death of listening to the girls’ continuous squabbling. She threw up her hands and said she didn’t know what to do. Carmen had to work long hours to keep the family afloat. She was forced to expect the girls to take care of themselves when she was gone.
The Fernandez family has no relatives in town, although they do have friends in the neighborhood. Juan and Carmen had attended services at a local Pentecostal church, but had not made the final decision to become members. At one point the couple met with the church’s pastor, who suggested that counseling for the girls might help the family. He had referred them to a local social service agency that provides a range of services to immigrants including counseling, legal advice, and help in finding employment. Carmen emphasized, however, that she wanted no one to ask questions about the family’s immigration status.
Carmen finally decides to seek outside help. She is experiencing horrible headaches from all of the stress. She is considering going to see a neighborhood currandera (a traditional unlicensed healer who typically uses herbal remedies and traditional cultural healing practices). Carmen is already taking manzanilla (chamomile, an ingredient found in herbal teas that is thought to calm anxiety in addition to easing stomach aches and intestinal cramping). She also plans to contact the social services agency that provides help to immigrants.
Problems in this case are fairly obvious. They in-clude fighting between Carmen and the girls, finan-cial difficulties, immigration status, Juan’s absence,
and Carmen’s headaches. However, focusing on the Fernandezes’ strengths can provide clues about how to deal with the issues.
Individual strengths include the facts that both Juan and Carmen have completed middle school and are literate; both had been attending English classes; both have jobs (this is also a family strength as it directly affects the family’s well-being); both Oralia and Mari are doing fairly well in school; and Car-men is motivated to seek family counseling.
Family strengths include strong family bonds, mu-tual concern among family members for each other’s welfare, and the parents’ pride in their daughters and high hopes for their futures.
Group strengths include any support and help family members can get from friends and others at work, school, and church, and in the neighbor-hood. Organizational strengths include the fact that the family plans to become involved with the agency serving immigrants, is willing to get counseling, and can use this agency as a resource to help Juan re-turn to the United States. Another organizational strength is that family members can be involved with a church if they choose to do so.
Community strengths include having a social ser-vices agency, a church, public bus transportation, and access to a curandera to provide alternative health care. (Note the importance of appreciating cultural differences when focusing on natural sup-port networks such as the curandera. A natu-ral support network or helping network is a group of people—including family, friends, neighbors, work colleagues, and fellow members in organizations such as churches and other community groups—who informally provide help and support.) Communities and their significance are covered in greater depth later in this chapter. Can you see any other strengths in the Fernandez example that have been missed?
Consider also that sometimes a strength may overlap two or more categories. For example, spiri-tual involvement with a church may reflect individ-ual, family, group, organizational, and community strengths. How the strength is labeled is not impor-tant. The essential thing is to consider all potential categories of strength when trying to understand hu-man behavior.
Individual StrengthsIndividual strengths can include educational background, work history, problem-solving and
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16 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
decision-making skills, personal qualities and charac-teristics, physical and financial resources, and positive attitudes (Jones & Biesecker, 1980; Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2012b). This text will explore many aspects of empowerment with individuals. Examples include in-fertility counseling (Chapter 2); appreciation of ethnic and cultural strengths in families (Chapter 4); cultur-ally competent practice (Chapter 5); sex education for Native Americans (Chapter 6); spiritual development (Chapter 7); women and sexual equality (Chapter 9); persons living with AIDS (Chapter 10); promoting optimal well-being for LGBT people (Chapter 13); and theories of successful aging (Chapter 15).
Understanding yourself enhances your ability to understand others. Other people deal with many of the same feelings, issues, and problems that you do. Recognizing strengths in yourself is just as impor-tant as recognizing them in others. How would you answer the questions about your personal strengths posed in Highlight 1.5?
Empowerment Through GroupsAn example of using strengths to pursue empower-ment for people from a group perspective involves the use of support groups. These are made up of people with similar problems or issues who come together and provide each other with support, in-formation about how to cope with difficulties, and suggestions for resources (Toseland & Rivas, 2012). Such groups emphasize the identification and use of strengths. Examples given by Toseland and Rivas in-clude the following:
● “A group of children meeting at school to discuss the effects of divorce on their lives.
● A group of people diagnosed with cancer, and their families, discussing the effects of the disease and how to cope with it.
● A group of recently discharged psychiatric patients discussing their adjustment to community living.
Communities provide an important context for human interaction and cultural celebrations. Here a crowd awaits the Chinese New Year’s parade in front of the main entrance to the Los Angeles Chinatown
Stoc
k Co
nnec
tion/
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ck
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 17
HIGHLIGHT 1.5
assessing Your StrengthsHow would you answer the following questions in assessing your own array of strengths?
Individual Strengths ● What are your best qualities? ● What are you most proud of about yourself ? ● What skills do you have (e.g., educational, work, leader-
ship, communication, social, technological)?
Family Strengths ● To what extent do you receive support from your family of
origin, current family, or significant other? ● In what ways do you rely on family members for help? ● What are the best characteristics about your family?
Group Strengths ● How do your friends, neighbors, colleagues at work, or
fellow students help and support you? ● Do you belong to any social, recreational, or counseling
groups? ● If so, how does each serve to meet your needs, provide
support, or offer opportunities for self-fulfillment, new experiences, or pleasure?
Organizational Strengths ● Do you currently belong to any organizations, or have you
in the past? ● If so, what benefits and support do or did you receive? ● Do you receive any special advising, support, or financial
help from school? If so, in what form? ● If you’re working, what are the strengths in your work
environment?
Community Strengths ● What services and resources are available to you in your
community? ● What do you like best about your community? ● What cultural opportunities are available in your commu-
nity that you appreciate?What other strengths do you have that you can draw upon
as you interact with others in your environment? Who and/or what helps you pursue your plans and dreams? Who and/or what helps you get through each day and, hopefully, make the most of it?
● A group of single parents sharing the difficulties of raising children alone.” (p. 20)
Chapter 8 elaborates more fully on empowerment through social work with groups.
Organizational and Community EmpowermentKretzmann and McKnight (1993) suggest a strengths perspective for enhancing communities and empow-ering community residents. They stress using po-tential community assets, including the following: citizens’ “religious, cultural, athletic, [and] recre-ational” associations; “private businesses; public in-stitutions such as schools, libraries, parks, police and fire stations; [and] nonprofit institutions such as hos-pitals and social service agencies” to improve a com-munity’s functioning and quality of life (pp. 6–8).
McKnight and Block (2010) refer to “the abun-dant community” that is full of potential and strength (p. 65). They describe communities as unique entities, each having special characteristics and strong points,
noting that “[a] competent community takes advan-tage of its abundance” (p. 65). Its residents strive to identify the community’s positive attributes and use them in creative ways to improve the quality of life.
T h e fo l l ow i n g a re ex a m p l e s o f u s i n g t h e strengths of an abundant community (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993):
● “About 60 youth leaders are trained to teach a youth empowerment curriculum to 700 younger kids. The curriculum, which develops self-esteem through a variety of nontraditional classes, offers youth alternatives to crime, gangs, and drugs. The project is sponsored jointly by a community college and the neighborhood police precinct.” (p. 37)
● “Seniors organize and convince the Department of Aging to open an alternative nutrition site after two have already been closed down.” (p. 56)
● “A group of homeless women with children are working together to create a housing cooperative in which they will provide care for each other’s
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18 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
children and also share in community meal preparation several days a week. Their combined effort means that they will be involved in every aspect of planning, purchasing, remodeling, and maintaining their new home.” (p. 89)
● “A group of recently graduated college students created an association that collected information from the people in their neighborhood who were willing to teach others what they knew, either for pay or for free. The group identified thousands of things local people could teach, from how to play a guitar to the works of Aristotle. This ‘library’ of community knowledge became a major new resource for local learning, discussion, and recreation.” (p. 136)
● “A coalition of local churches provides sanctuary for refugees from Central America.” (p. 149)
Resiliency: Using Strengths to Fight AdversityA concept related to the strengths perspective and empowerment is resiliency. Resiliency is the abil-ity of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship. Whereas the “strengths per-spective focuses on capabilities, assets, and positive attributes rather than problems and pathologies,” re-siliency emphasizes the use of strengths to cope with adversity and survive, despite difficulties (Greene & Conrad, 2012; Gutheil & Congress, 2000, p. 41).
The following scenarios provide an illustration of the concept of resiliency:
When a pitched baseball hits a window, the glass usually shatters. When that same ball meets a baseball bat, the bat is rarely damaged. When a hammer strikes a ceramic vase, it too usually shatters. But when that same hammer hits a rubber automobile tire, the tire quickly returns to its original shape. The baseball bat and the automobile tire both demonstrate resiliency. (Norman, 2000, p. 3)
Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk and pro-tection (Greene & Conrad, 2012; Norman, 2000). In this context, risk involves “stressful life events or adverse environmental conditions that increase the vulnerability [defenselessness or helplessness] of individuals” or other systems (p. 3). Protection, on the other hand, concerns those factors that “buffer, moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities” (Norman, 2000, p. 3).
On the individual level, an example of a resilient child is one who, despite being shunted from one fos-ter home to another during childhood, still completes high school, enters college, and later begins a healthy family of her own. Regardless of the risks to which she’s been exposed, she uses her strengths to protect her and struggle through her adversity. Such strengths might include positive self-esteem and self-worth, good problem-solving ability to address the difficulties con-fronting her, a positive sense of direction, the ability to empathize with others’ situations, the use of humor, high expectations for personal performance, and the ability to distance herself from the dysfunctional peo-ple and negative events around her (Norman, 2000). A key to stressing resiliency is the identification and use of clients’ strengths to overcome problems.
Examples of resiliency on the individual level can also include older adults (Lewis & Harrell, 2012). For example,
79-year-old Steven R. has been lovingly caring for his 80-year-old wife in their home since she was diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease 2 years ago. 68-year-old Juan T., having vowed to rebuild his business after it burned to the ground, reopened to great fanfare. 73-year-old Eudora B. has been raising her two teenage grandchildren since their mother died. 87-year-old Rose N. continues to write and publish short stories despite her recent stroke which left her wheelchair-bound and nearly totally blind. (Gutheil & Congress, 2000, p. 41)
An example of resiliency at the organizational level is a public university experiencing budget cuts of several million dollars. That university can be resilient to the extent that it responds to the risk of loss, protects its most important functions, makes plans to adapt to the shortfall of resources, and continues providing students with a quality educa-tion. Resiliency in this case involves focusing on its strengths to maintain basic functioning.
Resiliency in a community is illustrated by a group of urban neighborhoods that address increas-ing crime and drug use, problems that put the com-munity at risk of disorganization and destruction. Community strengths include availability of orga-nizations that provide resources, residents’ expec-tations for appropriate and positive behavior, and opportunities for “neighborhood youths to con-structively participate in the community” (Greene & Livingston, 2002, p. 78). A resilient community
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 19
might use its concerned citizens to form neighbor-hood organizations that oversee community con-ditions and upkeep, work with public services to improve conditions, and advocate for increased re-sources (Homan, 2011). Neighborhood Watch pro-grams may be formed in which residents volunteer to keep an eye on each other’s premises to prevent and combat crime. Community residents might work with local police and schools to establish drug edu-cation and prevention programs for young people. They might also advocate for more police to increase the surveillance and apprehension of drug dealers. A resilient community uses its strengths to address the risks threatening it and to protect its residents.
Critical Thinking About Ethical IssuesAnother important dimension necessary for under-standing human behavior and social work practice involves critical thinking about ethical issues. Values and ethics serve as a major foundation of the social work knowledge base. Values are perceptions and opinions held by individuals, professions, and cul-tures about “what is good and desirable” (Dolgoff, Harrington, & Loewenberg, 2012, p. 25). For exam-ple, our culture values education and offers it to ev-eryone. Similarly, you value college or you wouldn’t be here. Ethics are principles based on values that guide behavior and determine “what is right and correct” (Dolgoff et al., 2012, p. 25). Values are con-cerned with ideas, while ethics have to do with the appropriate behavior based on those ideas.
Social workers must be vigilant concerning their adherence to professional values. The National Association of Social Workers (NASW, 2008) has a professional code of ethics that specifies the follow-ing six basic ethical principles to guide practitio-ners’ behavior (access the entire Code at http://www .socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp):
1. “Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to address social problems.”
2. “Social workers challenge social injustice.”3. “Social workers respect the inherent dignity and
worth of the person.”4. “Social workers recognize the centered impor-
tance of human relationships.”5. “Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.”6. “Social workers practice within their areas of
competence and develop and enhance their pro-fessional expertise.”
Although the NASW Code of Ethics is the code followed by social workers in the United States, note that other ethical codes also are available (CSWE, 2008). Consider, for example, the Canadian Associa-tion of Social Workers (CASW) code of ethics, avail-able at http://www.casw-acts.ca/sites/default/files /attachements/CASW_Code%20of%20Ethics_0 .pdf. Highlight 1.6 addresses the ethical responsibili-ties of social workers at the international and global levels and discusses an international social work code of ethics.
Throughout a social work career, professionals must face and address ethical dilemmas, situations in which ethical principles conflict and all solutions are imperfect. For example, a 16-year-old client tells her social worker that she hates her stepfather and plans to poison him. The social worker is supposed to maintain confidentiality (being trustworthy and keeping information in confidence). However, this is a situation where a person’s life may be in danger, which must take precedence over confidentiality. In this case, the worker decides to break confidentiality in order to preserve the stepfather’s life.
Consider another example of an ethical dilemma:
A client told the [social work] field student intern that she was pregnant and was planning to marry the father of the baby. The student also was working with this client’s mother, who had told the student about her own sexual relationship with the same man that her daughter was going to marry. The mother did not want to tell her daughter that she was having a sexual relationship with her daughter’s boyfriend. (Abels, 2001, p. 9)
What should the student intern do? Tell the daughter about her mother’s relationship with her boyfriend? Or maintain confidentiality, remaining si-lent and letting the family work it out for themselves?
The social work student decided to “ask the mother to consider telling the daughter about her re-lationship, and to ask the boyfriend to do the same. Neither agreed. Because the daughter was 18, the agency could not identify a legal violation of sex with minors” (Abels, 2001, p. 9). The student social worker had tried her best. Maybe things would work out over time. Eventually, “the mother told her boy-friend that she was no longer going to see him” (p. 9).
As this story illustrates, social workers are bound to run into problems with no perfectly satisfactory solu-tion. When this occurs, they must use critical thinking
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2 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
HIGHLIGHT 1.6
ethics in Social Work at the International level: Human rights and Social Justice Issues
Social workers should attend to and advocate for the basic rights of all people. National Association of Social Workers (NASW) policy states that social workers must be prepared “to advocate for the rights of vulnerable people and must condemn policies,
practices, and attitudes of bigotry, intolerance, and hate that put any person’s human rights in grave jeopardy. The violation of human rights on the basis of race, ethnicity, gender, gender identity or expression, sexual orientation, age, disability, immigration status, or religion are examples” (NASW, 2012, p. 206). Human rights involve the premise that all people, regardless of race, culture, or national origin, are entitled to basic rights and treatment. Such essential entitlements include those “basic civil rights recognized in democratic constitutions such as life, liberty, and personal security” (Barker, 2003, p. 203). They also include “people’s rights to have paid employment, adequate food, education, shelter, health care, as well as the right to freedom from violence and freedom to pursue their dreams” (NASW, 2012, p, 204). Human rights are based on the concept of social justice, the idea that in a perfect world all citizens would have identical “rights, protection, opportunities, obligations, and social benefits” (Barker, 2003, p. 405).
Human rights and social justice are global issues. NASW (2012) reports the following:
Human rights violations are prevalent throughout the world, including the United States. Civilians are injured, maimed, and killed in times of conflict, far outnumbering military personnel. Refugees and immigrants are fleeing their countries in record numbers. Women everywhere continue to be treated as second-class citizens and subjected to violence in epidemic proportions. The social situation of children and [older adults]. . . alike is of grave concern the world over and appears to be deteriorating. There has been a resurgence of violence and oppression against ethnic and racial minority groups, and against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people in many regions of our globe, and poverty is endemic, fueling the fires of unrest and making a sham of the very concept of human rights. (p. 205)
When addressing ethical issues on an inter national (involving two or more nations) or global (involving the entire
world) level, social workers may consult an international social work code of ethics. Two important international organizations that have developed an Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles are the International Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Association of Schools of Social Work (IASSW). IFSW “is a global organisation striving for social justice, human rights and social development through the promotion of social work, best practice models and the facilitation of international, c o o p e rat i o n ” ( I F S W, 2 0 1 3 b ) . I A S S W “ p ro m o t e s t h e development of social work education throughout the world, develops standards to enhance quality of social work education, encourages international exchange, provides forums for sharing social work research and scholarship, and promotes human rights and social development through policy and advocacy activities” (IASSW, 2013). Both organizations actively engage social workers around the globe.
The Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles, concurrently supported by both organizations, consists of the following five parts:
1. Preface2. Definition of social work3. International conventions (various organizations’
statements of human rights)4. Principles5. Professional conduct (IASSW, 2004; IFSW, 2013a)
The “principles” in the Ethics in Social Work, Statement of Principles include “human rights and human dignity” and “social justice.” The former indicates that “social work is based on respect for the inherent worth and dignity of all people, and the rights that follow from this. Social Workers should uphold and defend each person’s physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual integrity and well-being.” The latter suggests that “Social workers have a responsibility to promote social justice; in relation to society generally, and in relation to the people with whom they work”; this involves “challenging negative discrimination,” “recognizing diversity,” “distributing resources equitably,” “challenging unjust policies and practices,” and “working in solidarity” (i.e., social workers have the responsibility to confront social injustice).
Information about IFSW is available at http://www.ifsw .org/ and about IASSW at http://www.iassw-aiets.org/.
to determine the best course of action. Critical think-ing is “the careful examination and evaluation of be-liefs and actions” to establish an independent decision about what is true and what is not (Gambrill & Gibbs, 2009, p. 4). Gibbs and Gambrill (1999) explain:
Critical thinkers question what others take for granted. They may ask people to support assumptions that others believe to be self-evident, but which are far from being self-evident. They ask, “What’s the evidence for—?” Critical thinking encourages open
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 21
dialogue and the consideration of opposing views. It involves taking responsibility for claims made and arguments presented. It requires flexibility and a readiness to admit, even welcome, the discovery of mistakes in your thinking. Critical thinking is independent thinking—thinking for yourself. Critical thinkers question values and positions that may be common in a society, in a group, or in their own family. (p. 13)
Just because someone else says something is true doesn’t mean it is. Just because you read something in a book or a newspaper doesn’t mean it’s accurate. Just because it’s documented as a law doesn’t mean it’s right and just. Critical thinking means not taking things at face value but rather making a determina-tion about their accuracy yourself.
Ethical decision making involves critical thinking. Social workers must assess potential problems and make a decision regarding what is the most ethical thing to do in a given situation. This book’s purpose is not to teach you how to do social work; rather, its purpose is to encourage you to begin to think critically about ethical issues. Ethical questions are incorporated
throughout to encourage you to use critical thinking to determine your own answers and opinions.
For example, consider the story of the wild boy of Aveyron that introduced this chapter. The ethical questions posed there were: 1) Was it ethical for Itard and the others to remove Victor from the wild against his will? 2) Did they have the right to take his freedom from him and place him in captivity where he never learned to function independently? 3) Does it matter that he was only 12 or 13 instead of being an adult? What do you critically think about these issues?
Questions ripe for critical thinking are endless:
● Should the life-preserving feeding tube be removed from a person who is brain-dead and will never regain consciousness?
● Should existing limited public funding be used to finance the military abroad, save Social Security, or provide scholarships and no-interest loans to finance higher education?
● Should prayer be allowed in public schools?
Highlight 1.7 explores further the application of values and ethics to bio-psycho-social assessments.
HIGHLIGHT 1.7
application of values and ethics to Bio-Psycho-Social assessmentsSocial workers assess problems and attempt to understand human behavior within the context of social work values and ethics. The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of Ethics (2008) focuses on six areas involving how a worker
should behave in a professional role. These include ethical responsibilities (1) to clients, (2) to colleagues, (3) in practice settings, (4) as professionals, (5) to the social work profession, and (6) to the broader society.
Social workers should always keep in mind their clients’ rights and well-being. We have established that to the best of their ability, social workers should strive to abide by professional ethical principles, respect the rights and needs of others, and make decisions about right and wrong consistent with their professional ethics. This sounds simple.
But consider the following scenarios, all occurring within the context of social work assessment.
Scenario 1: You are a social worker at a shelter for runaways, assessing an unmarried, pregnant 15-year-old who has been living on the streets. She is in her seventh month of pregnancy. She is addicted to cocaine, which
she has been using throughout the pregnancy (prenatal influences will be discussed in Chapter 2). She has been informed of the potential side effects of her cocaine use on the fetus, which are likely to result in an infant who will require more attention than that given to infants born to nonaddicted mothers. She adamantly states that she will keep the baby and figure out what to do about her addiction after it’s born. You have serious concerns for the infant’s well-being. You personally feel that the young woman should place the baby for adoption or at least in foster care until she can solve her own problems. What is the ethical thing to do?
Scenario 2: You are a hospital social worker assessing a client with AIDS (AIDS is covered in Chapter 10). He tells you that he has had unprotected intercourse with dozens of women since he received his positive HIV diagnosis. He has shared his diagnosis with none of these women. He boldly states that he is incredibly angry that he has the disease and plans to continue having intercourse with as many women as he can. You believe that it is both unethical and hazardous to his sex partners for him not to tell them about their potential exposure
(continued)
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2 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
to the disease. Clients are supposed to be able to make choices about their own behavior. You are supposed to keep the interactions between you and your client confidential. But what about the unsuspecting victims of your client’s choices? What is the ethical thing to do?
Scenario 3: You are an Adult Protective Services social worker. Your job is to make assessments and pursue interventions to make certain that vulnerable older adults with limited ability to take care of their basic needs get the help and resources they require. You are assessing an older woman in her own home. Her physical and intellectual health are deteriorating: The woman lives alone in a rundown apartment in a poor section of town. She has no close family. She insists that she wants to remain in her home. Your agency supervisor has told you that older adults deemed unable to take care of themselves must be placed in a nursing home facility. However, you also know that the only nursing home facilities available to poor older people in the area are rundown and understaffed, and offer a minimal quality of life. Ethically, your client has the right to make her own decisions. However, you fear that she may fall and remain helpless, turn the gas stove on and forget to light the flame, or have some other accident. What is the ethical thing to do?
Each of these situations portrays an ethical dilemma. Dilemmas involve problematic situations for which possible solutions are imperfect arid unsatisfactory. Many such dilemmas are encountered in social work practice.
Three basic suggestions can guide your critical thinking process. They are made within the context of assessing human behavior in order to lay the groundwork for determining what intervention to pursue.
1. Put your theoretical and factual knowledge base about human behavior to work. (This text intends to provide you with such a base.)
2. Identify your own values concerning the issues and then distinguish between your values and professional ethics.
3. Weigh the pros and cons of each alternative available to you and your client, and then proceed with the alternative you determine is the most positive.
There are no perfect answers. Following is an example of how these suggestions might be applied to scenario 1.
In scenario 1 (the pregnant, unmarried, 15-year-old cocaine addict), first gather the knowledge you need. You need to know the effects of cocaine on prenatal development (described in Chapter 2), the dynamics of drug addiction (discussed in Chapter 11), and the needs of newborn infants in general (addressed in Chapters 2, 3, and 4). Such information can give you clues regarding what types of information you need to know in order to plan interventions.
The second step is to recognize clearly your own personal values and biases. You should not impose your values on your client. Strive to make decisions that coincide as much as possible with professional ethics.
Finally, as depicted earlier in Figure 1.1, identify the alternatives available to you, weigh the pros and cons of each, and make the decision you consider to be the most ethical. Knowledge of human behavior in the areas cited above can lead you to the questions you need to ask in order to make an effective, ethical decision along with your client. Questions in scenario 1 might include the following:
● What are the client’s drug-using behaviors? ● What are the potential effects on the child? ● How motivated is the client to enter a drug treatment
program? ● What resources for drug treatment and other supportive
services for unmarried teen mothers are available? ● If not available, can needed services be initiated and
developed? ● What resources can you turn to in order to maximize the
child’s well-being?
You can address the dilemmas posed in scenarios 2 and 3 in a similar manner. What theoretical and factual knowledge do you have about human behavior that can be applied to your understanding of the situation? What personal values and biases do you hold concerning the client and the client’s situation? What alternatives are available to you and your client? What are the pros and cons of each? Answers to these questions will guide you to the alternative that is the most ethical to pursue.
HIGHLIGHT 1.7 (continued)
Employing Conceptual Frameworks for Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment: A Person-in-Environment PerspectiveWe have established that this book uses the orga-nizing framework of a lifespan approach for study-ing human development and behavior. We’ve also
emphasized important concepts that will be stressed throughout the book (including human diversity, cultural competency, oppression, populations-at-risk, empowerment, the strengths perspective, resil-iency, and critical thinking about ethical issues). Subsequent sections will examine the book’s theo-retical orientation based on ecosystems theory.
A theory is a coherent group of principles, concepts, and ideas organized to explain some observable occur-rence or trend. Theories provide conceptual frameworks
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 2 3
for how to view the world. They direct your attention and indicate on what aspects of a situation you should focus when trying to understand why people behave the way they do. (Note that the terms theory, theoretical perspective, and conceptual framework are often used interchangeably.) In this book, ecosystems theory in-corporates concepts from both systems theories and the ecological perspective, which focuses on the envi-ronment. One definition of ecosystems theory is “sys-tems theory used to describe and analyze people and other living systems and their transactions” (Beckett & Johnson, 1995, p, 1391). Ecosystems theory fits well with the concept known as person-in-environment, a foundation notion in social work practice and our basis for understanding the dynamics of human behav-ior (Greene, 1999; Sheafor & Horejsi, 2012). As Kirst-Ashman and Hull (2012b) explain,
A person-in-environment focus sees people as constantly interacting with various systems around them. These systems include the family, friends, work, social services, politics, religion, goods and services, and educational systems. The person is portrayed as being dynamically involved with each. Social work practice then is directed at improving the interactions between the person and the various
systems. This focus is referred to as improving person-in-environment fit. (p. 12)
Greene (1999, p. 17) describes the importance of the person-in-environment concept as an underlying principle of social work practice:
The person-in-environment perspective has been a central influence on the professions theoretical base and its approach to practice. This perspective is based on the belief that the profession’s basic mission requires a dual focus on the person and the environment and a common structured approach to the helping process (Gordon, 1962). By serving as a blueprint or an organizing guide for social work assessment and intervention at a multiple systems level, the person-[in-] environment focus has allowed for social workers to intervene effectively “no matter what their different theoretical orientations and specializations and regardless of where or with what client group they practice” (Meyer, 1987, p. 409) . . . In short, the person-[in-]environment perspective has established social work’s conceptual reference point and has delineated the practitioner’s role. (Greene & Watkins, 1998)
Highlight 1.8 discusses social workers’ goals as they work with people in the context of their environment.
HIGHLIGHT 1.8
Goals of Social Work PracticeThe National Association of Social Workers (1982) has conceptualized social work practice as having the following four major goals, followed by a fifth goal posed by the Council on Social Work Education (2015).
Goal 1: “Enhance People’s Problem-Solving, Coping, and Developmental Capacities”S o c i a l wo rk e m p h a s i z e s t h e p e r s o n – i n – e nv i ro n m e n t conceptualization. This conceptualization views every person as interacting with a number of systems. Such systems include (but are not limited to) the political system; the educational system; the family system; the religious system; the employment system; the social service system; and the goods and services system. A depiction of this person-in-environment conceptualization is presented in Figure 1.3.
Using the person-in environment concept, social work practice at this level focuses on the “person.” With this focus, a social worker serves primarily as an enabler. In this role, the worker may take on the activities of a counselor, teacher,
caregiver (providing supportive services to those who cannot fully solve their problems and meet their own needs), and behavior changer (i.e., changing specific parts of a client’s behavior).
Family system
Educational systemSocial service
system
Goods and servicessystem
Religious system Employment system
Political system
Person
FIGURE 1.3 Person-in-Environment Conceptualization
(continued)
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2 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Goal 2: “Link People with Systems That Provide Them with Resources, Services, and Opportunities”Using the person-in-environment concept, the focus of social work practice at this level focuses on the relationships between individuals and the systems they interact with. In this situation, a social worker serves primarily as a broker.
Goal 3: “Promote the Effective and Humane Operation of Systems That Provide People with Resources and Services”Using the person-in-environment concept, the focus of social work practice at this level is on the systems people interact with. One role a worker may fill at this level is an advocate. Additional roles include the following:
Program developer: The worker seeks to promote or design programs or technologies to meet social needs.
Supervisor: The worker seeks to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of the delivery of services through supervising other staff.
Coordinator: The worker seeks to improve a delivery system by increasing communications and coordination between human service resources.
Consultant: The worker seeks to provide guidance to agencies and organizations by suggesting ways to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of services.
(Social work roles that practitioners may assume as they work with larger systems are discussed more thoroughly later in the chapter.)
Goal 4: “Develop and Improve Social Policy”Similar to goal 3, social work practice at this level focuses on the systems people interact with. The distinction between goal 3 and goal 4 is that the focus of goal 3 is on the available
resources for serving people. Goal 4 works on the statutes and broader social policies that underlie such resources. The major roles at this level are planner and policy developer. In these roles, workers develop and seek adoption of new statutes or policies and propose elimination of ineffective or inappropriate ones. In these planning and policy development processes, social workers may take on an advocate role and, in some instances an activist role.
The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE) is the national accrediting body for social work education in the United States. It describes the purpose of social work as follows (CSWE, 2015):
“The purpose of the social work profession is to promote human and community well-being. Guided by a person and environment construct, a global perspective, respect for human diversity, and knowledge based on scientific, inquiry, social work’s purpose is actualized through its quest for social and economic justice, the prevention of conditions that limit human rights, the elimination of poverty, and the enhancement of the quality of life for all persons locally and globally.”
This definition of the purpose of social work is consistent with the four goals of social work just mentioned. However, it adds one additional goal of social work, as follows.
Additional Goal 5: “Promote Human and Community Well-Being”The social work profession is committed to enhancing the well-being of all human beings and to promoting community well-being. It is particularly committed to alleviating poverty, oppression, and other forms of social injustice. Social work has always advocated for developing programs to alleviate poverty, and many practitioners focus on providing services to the poor.
HIGHLIGHT 1.8 (continued)
LO 4 Employ a Conceptual Framework for Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment: Ecosystems TheoryIn the following pages, we explain the various con-cepts involved in ecosystems theory. First, we define significant conceptions in systems theory. We then present a case example involving child abuse that demonstrates the application of these concepts in
practice. Next, we discuss important concepts inher-ent in the ecological perspective that also contribute to ecosystems theory, stressing people’s involvement with multiple systems in the environment.
Note that multitudes of other theories may be ap-plied to various aspects of human development and behavior. Such theories are explained throughout the book in one of two contexts—either a specific devel-opmental phase of life or people’s interaction with the encompassing social environment. Highlight 1.9 provides a summary of these theories and the chap-ters in which they are addressed.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 2 5
HIGHLIGHT 1.9
a Summary of Some of the other theoretical Perspectives addressed in this BookThe following are some of the conceptual frameworks and theoretical perspectives provided in this book. For ease of location, they are listed in alphabetical order. Some theories related to a specific topic are listed under that topic.
Theoretical Perspective Chapter
afrocentric perspective and worldview 5
aging theories
activity theory 14
disengagement theory 14
Genetic theories 14
nongenetic cellular theories 14
Physiological theories 14
Social reconstruction syndrome theory 14
Behavioral theories 3
choice theory by Glasser 22
community (macro) change models 5
conflict perspective 12
erikson’s psychosocial theory 7, 11, 15
Feminist theories 3
Fowler’s theory of faith development 7
Functionalist perspective 12
Gangs and sociological theories 8
Gilligan’s theory of moral development for women 7
Group development models
Bales model 8
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model 8
Schiller model 8
tuckman model 8
Identity theory of Glasser 7
Interactional model addressing emotional and behavioral problems
8
Interactionist perspective 12
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development 7
leadership theories
distributed-functions approach 8
Position approach 8
Theoretical Perspective Chapter
Style approach 8
trait approach 8
learning theory 4
levinson’s theories of life structure and transitions for men
11
marcia’s hierarchy of needs 11
medical model addressing emotional and behavioral problems
8
motivational interviewing 10
neo-Freudian psychoanalytic perspectives 3
organizational theories
autocratic model 12
collegial model 12
conservative perspective 12
custodial model 12
developmental perspective 12
Human relations model 12
liberal perspective 12
Scientific management model 12
theories X and Y 12
theory Z 12
Parten’s theory of children’s play development 4
Peck’s theory of psychological development 11
Phenomenological theories 3
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development 3
Psychodynamic theory 3
racial/cultural identity development model 7
(by Howard-Hamilton & Frazier)
Sexual orientation development theories
Biological theories 13
Interactionist theories 13
Psychological theories 13
Social construction of gender 9
Social intelligence 10
Social learning theory and moral development 7
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2 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Understanding Key Concepts in Systems TheoriesA number of terms are important to an understand-ing of systems theories and their relationship to so-cial work practice. These include system, boundaries, subsystem, homeostasis, role, relationship, input, out-put, feedback, interface, differentiation, entropy, nega-tive entropy, and equifinality.
A system is a set of elements that are orderly and interrelated to make a functional whole. A large na-tion, a public social services department, and a newly married couple are all examples of systems. We will refer primarily to social systems—that is, those sys-tems that are composed of people and affect people.
Boundaries are the borders or margins that sepa-rate one entity from another. For example, your skin provides a boundary between you as an independent, living system and the external environment. Simi-larly, a boundary encompasses the students enrolled in the class that’s using this book. You’re either part of the class or you’re not.
A boundary may exist between parents and their children. Parents maintain family leadership and provide support and nurturance to their children. (Chapter 4 discusses more thoroughly the application of this and other systems concepts to family systems.) A boundary may also exist between the protective service workers in a large county social service agency and those who work in financial assistance. These are orderly and interrelated groups set apart by specified boundaries in terms of their designated job respon-sibilities and the clients they serve, yet each group is part of the larger social services agency.
A subsystem is a secondary or subordinate system that is a component of a larger system. Obvious exam-ples of subsystems are the parental and sibling subsys-tems within a family. The group of protective services workers in the large social services agency forms one subsystem and the financial assistance workers an-other. These subsystems are set apart by designated boundaries, yet still are part of the larger, total system.
Homeostasis is the tendency for a system to main-tain a relatively stable, constant state of balance. If something disturbs the balance, the system will read-just itself and regain stability. A homeostatic family system is one that is functioning in such a way that it can continue to function and stay together. A ho-meostatic social services agency is one that works to maintain its ongoing existence. However, neither the family nor the agency is necessarily functioning as
well or as effectively as possible. Homeostasis merely means maintaining the status quo.
Sometimes that status quo can be ineffective, inef-ficient, or seriously problematic.
A role is the culturally established social behavior and conduct expected of a person in any designated interpersonal relationship. Each individual involved in a system assumes a role within that system. For instance, a person in the role of social worker is ex-pected to behave in certain “professional” ways as defined by the profession’s code of ethics. Each of us probably fulfills numerous roles because we are involved in multiple systems. The social worker may also assume the roles of spouse and parent within his or her own family system. Additionally, that per-son may assume the role of executive director within the National Association of Social Workers state chapter, the role of Little League coach, and the role of Sunday school teacher.
A relationship is a reciprocal, dynamic, interper-sonal connection characterized by patterns of emo-tional exchange, communication, and behavioral interaction. For example, a social worker may have a professional relationship with a client. They commu-nicate and interact in order to meet the client’s needs. Relationships may exist between systems of any size. A client may have a relationship with an agency; one agency may have a relationship with another agency.
Input involves the energy, information, or commu-nication flow received from other systems. A parent may receive input from a child’s grade school princi-pal, noting that the child is doing poorly in physical education. A public agency may receive input from the state in the form of funding.
Output, on the other hand, is the response of a system, after receiving and processing input, that af-fects other systems in the environment. For instance, output for a social services agency for people who are substance abusers might be 150 hours of individual counseling, 40 hours of group counseling, 30 hours of family counseling, 10 hours of drug education at local schools, and 50 hours of liaison work with other agencies involved with clients. (Chapter 11 discusses substance abuse and its effects on family systems in greater detail.)
Note that the term output is qualitatively different from outcome, a term frequently used in social work education. Output is a more general term for the re-sult of a process. Outcomes are specified variables that are measured for the purpose of evaluation.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 2 7
For example, outcomes for the social services agency just mentioned might include clients’ decreased use of addictive substances, enhanced communication among family members receiving treatment, and de-creased use of drugs and alcohol by students receiv-ing drug education. Output is what is done, which may or may not have value. Outcomes measure posi-tive effects of a system’s process.
An issue that this text will continue to address is the importance of evaluating whether a system’s out-puts are worth the inputs. Is an agency, for example, achieving the outcomes it hopes to? Is the agency using its resources efficiently and effectively? Or can those resources be put to a better use by providing some other type of service (output)?
If clients receiving treatment from the substance abuse counseling agency described previously con-tinue to abuse drugs and alcohol at the same rate, to what extent is the treatment effective? Since treatment is expensive, is the agency’s output worth its input? Is the agency achieving its outcomes? If the agency typically sees little progress at the end of treatment for clients, we have to question the agency’s usefulness. Should the agency’s treatment process be changed to achieve better outcomes? Or should the agency be shut down totally so that re-sources (input) can be better invested in some other agency or treatment system?
Feedback is a special form of input in which a system receives information about its own perfor-mance. As a result of negative feedback involving problematic functioning, the system can choose to correct any deviations or mistakes and return to a more homeostatic state. For example, a supervisor may tell a social work supervisee that he or she is fill-ing out an important agency form incorrectly. This allows the worker the opportunity to correct his or her behavior and complete the form appropriately.
Positive feedback is also valuable. This involves a system’s receiving information about what it is doing correctly in order to maintain itself and thrive. Get-ting a 97 percent score on a history exam provides a sixth grader with the information that she has mas-tered most of the material. An agency that receives a specific federal grant has gotten the feedback that it has developed a plan worthy of such funding.
An interface is the point at which two systems (individuals, families, groups, organizations, or com-munities) come into contact with each other or com-municate. For example, one interface is the written
contract established between a field instructor in an adoptions agency and a student intern placed under his or her supervision. At the beginning of the se-mester, they discuss plans and goals for the semester. What tasks will the student be given, and what levels of performance are expected? With the help of the student’s field liaison (i.e., the student’s university professor), a written contract is established that clar-ifies these expectations. Contracts generally involve written, oral, or implied agreements between peo-ple concerning their goals, procedures, techniques, time frames, and reciprocal responsibilities during some time period in their relationship.
At his midterm evaluation, the student receives a grade of D. Although he is devastated, he still has half a semester to improve. Focusing on the inter-face between the field instructor and field intern (in this case, the contract they established at the begin-ning of the semester) provides direction concerning what to do about the problem of poor performance in his internship. By reviewing the terms specified in the contract, the instructor and student, with the liaison’s help, can elaborate upon problems and ex-pectations. Where did the student go wrong? Which of the student’s expectations did the field instructor fail to fulfill? They can then establish a new contract concerning the student’s performance for the re-mainder of the semester.
It is still up to the student to “make or break” his field experience. However, the interface (contract) provides a clearly designated means of approaching the problem. Having the field instructor and field li-aison vaguely tell the student that he needs “to im-prove his performance” would probably accomplish little. Rather, identifying and using the interface in the form of the student–instructor contract provides a specific means for attacking the problem. Inter-faces are not limited to those between individual sys-tems. Interfaces can characterize interactions among systems of virtually any size. For example, there is an interface between the adoptions agency provid-ing the student placement and the university social work program that places the student intern. This in-terface involves the specified agreements concerning each of these two larger systems’ respective responsi-bilities and expectations.
Differentiation is a system’s tendency to move from a simpler to a more complex existence. Rela-tionships, situations, and interactions tend to get more complex over time. For example, in the life
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2 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of any particular family, each day adds new expe-riences. New information is gathered, and new op-tions are explored. The family’s life becomes more complex. And as a social services agency continues over time, it may develop more detailed policies and programs.
Entropy is the tendency of a system to progress to-ward disorganization, depletion, and death. Nothing lasts forever. People age and eventually die. Young families get older, and children leave to start their own families. As time passes, older agencies and sys-tems are eventually replaced by new ones.
Negative entropy is the process of a system to-ward growth and development. In effect, it is the opposite of entropy. Individuals develop physically, intellectually, and emotionally as they grow. Social service agencies grow and develop new programs and clientele.
Equifinality refers to the fact that there are many different means to the same end. It is important not to get locked into only one way of thinking. In any situation, there are alternatives. Some may be better than others, but nonetheless there are alternatives. For instance, as a social worker you may get needed resources for a family from a variety of sources. These may include financial assistance, housing al-lowances, food stamps, grants, or private charities. You may have to choose among the alternatives available from a variety of agencies.
Application of Systems Concepts to a Case Example of Child AbuseThe following case example concerning the Knoche family involves potential child abuse. The discussion applies various systems concepts (italicized) to the as-sessment and beginning treatment of the family. Note that child abuse is just one of a wide range of practice situations in which systems concepts can be applied to help understand the dynamics involved. Other issues that you may encounter include unwanted pregnancy, drug and alcohol abuse, potential suicide, severe ill-ness, poverty, intellectual disability (formerly referred to as mental retardation), intimate partner violence, racial discrimination, and grief over illness or death.
The Presenting ProblemAs she was baking Christmas cookies, Mrs. Green overheard Mr. Knoche in the next apartment scream-ing at his son, Jimmy. Mrs. Green became very
disturbed. Jimmy, who was only 6, was crying. Next, Mrs. Green heard sharp cracks that sounded like a whip or a belt. This was not the first time; however, she hated to interfere in her neighbor’s business. She recalled that last summer she had noticed strange-looking bruises on Jimmy’s arms and legs, as well as on those of his 4-year-old sister, Sherry. She just couldn’t stand it anymore. She finally picked up the phone and reported what she knew to the public social services department. She asked that the Knoches not be told who had called to report the situation. She was assured that the report would remain confidential. State law protects persons who report suspected child abuse or neglect by ensuring their anonymity if they wish.
The InvestigationMs. Samantha Chin was the Protective Services worker assigned to the case. She visited the Knoche home the day after Mrs. Green made the report. Both Mr. and Mrs. Knoche were home. Ms. Chin explained to them that she had come to investigate potential child abuse.
She then proceeded to assess the functioning of the family system. Mr. and Mrs. Knoche formed a parental subsystem within that system. Ms. Chin so-licited input from that subsystem.
Harry Knoche was 38 years old. He was a tall, slightly overweight, balding man dressed in an old blue shirt and coveralls. He spoke in a gruff voice, but expressed a strong desire to cooperate. He also had a faint odor of beer on his breath.
Marion Knoche was a pale, thin, soft-spoken woman of 32. Mrs. Knoche looked directly at the worker, shook her head in a determined manner, and stated that she was eager to cooperate. However, she often deferred to Mr. Knoche when spoken to or asked a question.
Ms. Chin asked to examine the children. Together, the children formed a sibling subsystem within the larger family system. She found slash-like bruises on their arms and legs. When Mr. Knoche was asked how the children got these bruises, he replied that they con-tinually made noise when he was trying to watch the football game on television or sleep. He stated they had to learn discipline in order to survive in life. He just strapped them a little now and then to teach them a lesson. It was no different from his treatment at the hands of his own father. He also stated that his neigh-bors could just keep their noses out of the way he wanted to raise his kids. This comment reflected how
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 2 9
the family itself was a subsystem of the larger commu-nity system and did not escape Ms. Chin’s notice.
Ms. Chin replied that the state’s intent was to pro-tect the children from abuse or neglect. The inter-face between the state and the family was Ms. Chin’s contact. She explained that citizens were encouraged to make a report even if abuse or neglect was only suspected. Ms. Chin added that the anonymity of people who made reports was protected by state law.
When asked how she felt about discipline, Mrs. Knoche said she agreed with her husband regarding how he chose to punish the children. Mr. Knoche was the main disciplinarian, and Mrs. Knoche felt all he was doing was teaching the children a lesson or two in order to maintain control and respect.
The ChildrenJimmy was an exceptionally nonresponsive child of relatively small stature for his age. When he was asked a question, he tended to avoid eye contact and
mumbled only one-word answers. When his father asked him to enter or leave the room, he did so im-mediately and quietly. His mother mentioned that he was having some problems with reading in school.
Sherry, on the other hand, was an extremely eager and aggressive child. When asked to do something, she initially ignored the request and continued her own activities. She refused to comply until her par-ent raised his or her voice. At that point she would look up and very slowly do what she was told, often requiring several proddings. At other times, Sherry would aggressively pull at her parents’ clothing, try-ing to get their attention. She would also scream at them loudly and ask for things such as food, even though this interrupted their ongoing conversation.
Parental History and Current StatusIn order to do an accurate assessment, Ms. Chin asked the Knoches various questions about them-selves, their histories, and their relationship with each other, Mr. Knoche came from a family of 10. His father drank a lot and frequently used a belt to discipline his children. He remembered being very poor and having to work most of his life. At age 16, he dropped out of high school because he was able to get a job in a steel mill.
Mrs. Knoche came from a broken family; her fa-ther had left when she was three. This reflected a state of entropy or disorganization. She had two older brothers who, she felt, often teased and tormented her. She described her mother as being a quiet, disin-terested woman who rarely stated her own opinions and liked to keep to herself. The family had always been on welfare. Mrs. Knoche dropped out of high school to marry Mr. Knoche when she was 17. At that time, Mr. Knoche was 23 and had already held six different jobs since he started working at the steel mill seven years before.
The Knoches’ marriage had not been an easy one. It was marked by poverty, frequent unemployment, and frequent moves. Mr. Knoche had been laid off 19 months earlier from his last assembly-line job at a local tractor factory. He stated that he was “very dis-gusted” that the family had to rely on welfare. Despite his frequent job changes, he had always been able to make it on his own without any assistance. Yet this time he had just about given up getting another job. He stated that he didn’t like to talk to Mrs. Knoche very much about his problems because it made him feel weak and incompetent. He didn’t really have any This child has had a long history of being abused by his mother.
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3 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
buddies he liked to talk to or do things with, either. All he seemed to be doing lately was watching televi-sion, sleeping, and drinking beer. He was even start-ing to watch the daytime reality shows.
Mrs. Knoche was resigned to her fate. She did pretty much what her husband told her to do. She told Ms. Chin that she never did have much confi-dence in herself. She said that she and Mr. Knoche were never really able to talk much.
The Knoches had been living in their current apartment for six months. However, as usual, they were finding it hard to keep up with the rent and thought they’d have to move soon. The family’s output was surpassing its input. This deficit could affect the family’s homeostasis, or stability, and abil-ity to function effectively. Moving so often made it hard to get involved and make friends in any neigh-borhood. Mrs. Knoche said she’d always been a lonely person.
The Assessment of Human BehaviorFactors that must be considered in the assessment of a child abuse case include physical and behavioral indicators, and certain aspects of social functioning that tend to characterize abusive families. Before Ms. Chin could plan an appropriate and effective inter-vention, she needed to understand the dynamics of the behavior involved in this family situation. Addi-tionally, she needed to know what resources or input were available to help the family.
Physical Indicators of Abuse Although defini-tions vary depending on medical, social, and legal emphases, simply put, physical child abuse is “non-accidental injury inflicted by a caregiver” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 86). Physical indicators of abuse include bruises and welts, burns, lacerations and abrasions, skeletal injuries, head injuries, and inter-nal injuries (Crosson-Tower, 2014; Downs, Moore, & McFadden, 2009).
Often it is difficult to determine whether a child’s injury is the result of abuse or a simple accident. For instance, a black eye may indeed have been caused by being hit by a baseball instead of a parent’s fist. However, certain factors suggest child abuse. These include an inconsistent medical history, injuries that do not seem to coincide with developmental abil-ity (e.g., it is not logical that an 18-month-old girl broke her leg when running and falling when she is
not yet old enough to walk well), and odd patterns of injuries (e.g., a series of small circular burns from a cigarette or a series of bruises healed to various degrees).
In Jimmy’s and Sherry’s case, slash-like bruises were apparent on their arms and legs. Upon further investigation, the worker established that these did result from disciplinary beatings by the children’s fa-ther. Cases of discipline often involve a discretionary decision on the part of the worker. The issue con-cerns parental rights to discipline versus children’s rights and well-being. The worker must assess the situation and determine whether abuse is involved.
Behavioral Indicators of Abuse Ms. Chin needed to know not only what types of physical indicators are involved in child abuse but also the behavioral indicators of abused children. These types of behav-iors differ from “normal” behavior. She needed to know the parameters of normal behavior in order to distinguish it from the abnormal behavior typically displayed by abused children.
Abused children are sometimes overly compli-ant and passive (Crosson-Tower, 2013, 2014). If a child acts overly eager to obey and/or is exception-ally quiet and still, this may be a reaction to abuse. Such children may be seeking to avoid further abuse by maintaining a low profile and avoiding notice by the abuser. Jimmy manifested some of these behav-iors. He was afraid of being disciplined and so main-tained as innocuous a profile as possible. This was a logical approach for him to take in order to avoid being hurt.
Sherry, on the other hand, assumed an aggres-sive, attention-getting approach, another behav-ior pattern frequently displayed by abused children (Crosson-Tower, 2013, 2014; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013). She frequently refused to comply with her parents’ instructions until they raised their voices, and often demanded additional prodding. She also tried to get their attention by pulling at them and screaming requests at them. This approach is also typical of certain abused children. Since Sherry was not getting the attention she needed through other means, she was acting aggressively to get it, even though such behavior was inappropriate. Ms. Chin needed to be knowledgeable about the normal atten-tion needs of a 4-year-old in order to understand the dynamics of this behavior.
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 31
One other symptom typical of abused children involves lags in development (Crosson-Tower, 2013, 2014; Kolko, 2002; LeVine & Sallee, 1999). They might also regress to an earlier developmental stage, displaying such behaviors as “[b]aby talk, wetting the bed, and sucking fingers or thumb” in order to “cope with their situations” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 97). Jimmy was small for his age and was having difficulty in school. Ms. Chin needed to be aware of the normal parameters of development for a 6-year-old in order to be alert to developmental lags. She also needed to know that such lags were potential indicators of abuse.
Family Social Functioning Not only the children but also the parents must be assessed. A worker must understand the influence of both personal and en-vironmental factors on the behavior of the parents. Only then can these factors be targeted for interven-tion and the abusive behaviors be changed.
Personal parental factors that are related to abuse include unfulfilled needs for nurturance and dependence, isolation, and lack of nurturing child-rearing practices (Barnett, Miller-Perrin, & Perrin, 2011; Crosson-Tower, 2014). Ms. Chin discovered in her interview that both parents were isolated and alone. They had no one to turn to for emotional sup-port. There was no place where they could appro-priately and harmlessly vent their frustrations. Nor had either parent learned appropriate child-rearing practices in their families of origin. Mr. Knoche had learned excessive discipline—to be strict and punitive. Mrs. Knoche had learned compliance and passivity—to be helpless and to believe she could have no effect on others, no matter what she did.
Environmental factors are equally important in the assessment of this case. Specific factors related to abuse often include lack of support systems, mari-tal or cohabiting problems, and life crises (Barnett et al., 2011; Tower, 2014). Life can become more dif-ficult and complicated. Differentiation, in a negative sense, can occur.
Neither parent had been able to develop an ad-equate support system. Due to frequent moves, they had not been able to develop relationships with neighbors or others in the community systems of which they were part. Nor could they turn to each other for emotional support. They had never learned how to communicate effectively within a
marital relationship. Finally, they were plagued by the serious life crises of poverty and unemploy-ment. All of these things contributed to the abusive situation.
Making Connections with Available ResourcesMs. Chin considered several treatment directions. Equifinality is reflected in the range of options avail-able. Of course, resource availability in the client’s community system is critically important. If re-sources had not been available, Ms. Chin might have faced quite a dilemma. Should she work to help get appropriate resources developed? If so, what kind? How should she proceed? This would involve focus-ing on aspects of the larger social systems in which her clients lived.
However, the Knoches’ community had a num-ber of resource input possibilities. A Parents Anonymous group and various social groups were available to decrease the Knoches’ social isolation. (Parents Anonymous is a self-help organization, similar to Alcoholics Anonymous, for parents who have abused or neglected their children.) Individual and marital counseling were available to improve the Knoches’ personal self-images and to enhance marital communication. A visiting homemaker could encourage Mrs. Knoche to more assertively undertake her homemaking and child-rearing tasks. She could also provide personal support. Parent Effectiveness Training could be used to teach the Knoches parenting skills and alternatives to harsh discipline. Finally, Mr. Knoche could be encouraged to get re-involved in a job search. An employment specialist at the agency could help him define and pursue alternative higher-paying employment possi-bilities. The intent was to help the Knoches achieve negative entropy.
Ms. Chin discussed these alternatives with the Knoches. In essence, she provided them with input and feedback. Together they determined which were possible and realistic. They then decided which should be pursued first. Mr. Knoche admitted that he could use some help in finding a job, which he stated was his highest priority. He agreed to contact the agency job specialist to help him reinstitute his job search. Mrs. Knoche liked the idea of having a visiting homemaker. She felt that this would help her get her work done, and it would also give her someone to talk to. Both agreed to attend a Parents
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32 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Anonymous group on a trial basis. They were not interested in pursuing marriage counseling or Par-ent Effectiveness Training now, but would keep it in mind for the future.
interactions with this environment in order to sur-vive and thrive. The social environment includes the actual physical setting that the society or culture pro-vides. This involves the type of home a person lives in, the type of work a person does, the amount of money that is available, and the laws and social rules people live by. The social environment also includes the individuals, groups, organizations, and systems with which a person comes into contact, including family, friends, work groups, and governments. So-cial institutions such as health care, housing, social welfare, and educational systems are yet other as-pects of this social environment.
Natural EnvironmentThe natural environment is composed of all the non-human living things and non-living things that are naturally on earth. It includes the climate, weather, natural resources, plants, animals, microorganisms, minerals, rocks, and bodies of water on this planet. Humans are strongly impacted by things like hurri-canes, tornadoes, thunderstorms, droughts, diseases, animal bites, global warming, mining, industrial damage, mudslides, mountains, deserts, scarcity of fossil fuels, toxic wastes, lead poisoning, toxic chemi-cals, air pollution, radioactive leaks from power plants, acid rain, chlorinated hydrocarbons, oil spills in large bodies of water, forest fires, blizzards, food preservatives—the list of natural phenomena im-pacting humans could go on and on. The concept of “environmental justice” first appeared in the 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) (Council on Social Work Education, 2015). Social workers have an obligation to understand the impact of the natural environment on humans, and to work toward environmental justice. Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involve-ment of all people—with respect to the development and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It will be achieved when everyone en-joys (a) the same degree of protection from health and environmental hazards, and (b) equal access to the decision-making process to have a healthy envi-ronment to live in.
TransactionsPeople communicate and interact with others in their environments. These interactions are referred to as transactions. Transactions are active and dynamic because something is communicated or exchanged. They may be positive or negative. An example of a
Ethical Question 1.2
EP 1
When child maltreatment is suspected, should children be allowed to remain in their own home? How much risk of child maltreatment is too much risk? What effect does it have on children to be removed from their home?
Understanding Key Concepts in the Ecological PerspectiveIn addition to terms taken from systems theories, concepts from the ecological perspective also con-tribute to ecosystems theory. In some ways, the eco-logical perspective might be considered an offshoot or interpretation of systems theories. An ecological approach provides a more specific view of the world within a social work perspective. It tends to place greater emphasis on individuals’ and individual fam-ily systems’ functioning within their environments. It also brings to ecosystems theory many terms such as coping that are very important in understanding hu-man behavior. Systems theories, on the other hand, can assume a broader perspective. They can be used to describe the dynamics in a social service agency or the functioning of an entire government.
Note that some systems and ecological terms, such as interface and the input of energy, overlap. In essence, their meanings are very similar, especially when relating specifically to people functioning within their environments.
Some of the major terms employed in the ecologi-cal perspective and defined here include social envi-ronment, natural environment, transactions, energy, interface, adaptation, coping, and interdependence.
Social EnvironmentThe social environment involves the conditions, cir-cumstances, and human interactions that encom-pass human beings. Individuals must have effective
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 3 3
positive transaction is the revelation that the one you dearly love also loves you in return. Another posi-tive transaction is the receipt of a paycheck after two weeks of work. An example of a negative transac-tion is being laid off from a job that you’ve had for 15 years. Another example of a negative transaction is an irritable neighbor complaining to the police about your dog barking too much.
EnergyEnergy is the natural power of active involvement between people and their environments. Energy can take the form of input or output. Input is the form of energy coming into a person’s life and adding to that life. For example, an older adult whose health is failing may need input in the form of substantial physical assistance and emotional support in order to continue performing the daily tasks necessary to stay alive. (Chapters 15 and 16 discuss the impor-tance of energy and input from the environment to maintain health and quality of life.) Another exam-ple of input is a teacher giving a student feedback on a term paper.
Output, on the other hand, is a form of energy going out of a person’s life or taking something away from it. For instance, parents may expend tre-mendous amounts of energy in taking care of their young children. So may a person who volunteers time and effort to work on the campaign of a politi-cian he or she supports.
InterfaceThe interface in the ecological perspective is simi-lar to that in systems theory. It is the exact point at which the interaction between an individual and the environment takes place. During an assessment, the interface must be clearly in focus in order to target the appropriate interactions for change. For exam-ple, a couple entering marriage counseling initially state that their problem concerns disagreements about how to raise their children. Upon further ex-ploration, however, the real problem is discovered—namely, their inability to communicate feelings to each other. The actual problem, the inability to communicate, is the interface where one individual affects the other. If the interface is inaccurately tar-geted, much time and useless energy can be wasted before getting at the real problem. (Chapter 12 de-scribes the importance of communication within the context of couples and families.)
The ecological perspective, however, differs from systems theories in its tendency to emphasize inter-faces concerning individuals and small groups such as families. It is more difficult to apply the ecologi-cal perspective’s conception of interfaces to those in-volving only larger systems such as communities and organizations.
AdaptationAdaptation refers to the capacity to adjust to sur-rounding environmental conditions. It implies change. A person must change or adapt to new conditions and circumstances in order to continue functioning effectively. Social workers frequently help people in their process of adaptation to a new marriage partner, a new job, or a new neighborhood. Adaptation usually requires energy in the form of ef-fort. Social workers often help direct people’s ener-gies so that they are most productive.
Not only are people affected by their environ-ments, but environments are also affected by people in their process of adaptation. People change their environments in order to adapt successfully. For instance, a person might find it hard to survive a winter in Montana in the natural environment with-out shelter. Therefore, those who live in Montana manipulate their environment by clearing land and constructing heated buildings. They change their en-vironment in order to survive in it. Therefore, adap-tation is often a two-way process involving both the individual and the environment.
CopingCoping is a form of adaptation that implies a strug-gle to overcome problems. Although adaptation may involve responses to new conditions that are either positive or negative, coping refers to the way people deal with the negative experiences they encounter. For example, a person might have to cope with the sudden death of a parent, a primary family wage earner losing a job, gangs that are vandalizing the community, or vital public assistance payments that are significantly decreased.
At least five types of coping skills are important for people to develop (Barker, 2003). First, people need to solicit and obtain the types of information they need to function well. For instance, an older adult who becomes sick needs to know how to ob-tain Medicare benefits (see Chapter 16). Second, people need to have coping skills for thinking about
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3 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and planning for the future. For example, a person who loses a job needs to develop a plan for finding another one. Third, coping skills involve control-ling emotions. For example, a minor disagreement with a significant other should not result in a major battle involving screaming, scratching, and punch-ing. Fourth, people need coping skills to control their needs for immediate gratification. For instance, a family needs to budget its income so that there is food on the table at the end of the week, instead of spending money on a new television set. Finally, coping skills involve identifying alternative ways of approaching a problematic situation and evaluating the pros and cons of each alternative.
Social workers are frequently called upon to help clients develop coping skills. A major theme in the
helping process involves working with clients to eval-uate alternatives and to choose the one that’s best for them. Evaluating alternatives was addressed earlier in this chapter.
InterdependenceThe final ecological concept is that of interdepen-dence, the mutual reliance of each person on every other person. An individual is interdependent or re-liant on other individuals and groups of individuals in the social environment.
A person cannot exist without other people. The businessperson needs the farmer to produce food and the customer to purchase goods. The farmer needs the businessperson to provide money to buy seed, tools, and other essentials. The farmer becomes
Systems and Ecological Perspective Concepts Prominent in Ecosystems Theory
Systems Theory ConceptsSystem: a set of elements that are orderly and
interrelated to make a functional whole.Boundaries: the borders or margins that separate
one entity from another.Subsystem: a secondary or subordinate system that
is a component of a larger system.Homeostasis: the tendency for a system to maintain
a relatively stable, constant state of balance.Role: the culturally established social behavior and
conduct expected of a person in any designated interpersonal relationship.
Relationship: a reciprocal, dynamic interpersonal connection characterized by patterns of emotional exchange, communication, and behavioral interaction.
Input: the energy, information, or communication flow received from other systems.
Output: the response of a system, after receiving and processing input, that affects other systems in the environment.
Feedback: a special form of input in which a system receives information about its own performance (either negative or positive).
Interface: the point where two systems of any size come into contact with each other or communicate.
Differentiation: a system’s tendency to move from a simpler to a more complex existence.
Entropy: the tendency of a system to progress toward disorganization, depletion, and death.
Negative entropy: the process of a system toward growth and development.
Equifinality: the fact that there are many different means to the same end.
Ecological Perspective ConceptsSocial environment: the conditions, circumstances,
and human interactions that encompass human beings.
Natural environment: composed of all the non-human living things and non-living things that are naturally on earth.
Transactions: the means by which people communicate and interact with others in the environment.
Energy: the natural power of active involvement between people and their environments.
Interface: the exact point at which the interaction between an individual and the environment takes place.
Adaptation: the capacity to adjust to surrounding environmental conditions.
Coping: a form of adaptation that implies a struggle to overcome problems.
Interdependence: the mutual reliance of each person on every other person.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 35
the customer for the businessperson. People, espe-cially those living in a highly industrialized society, are interdependent; they need each other to survive.
LO 5 Recognize People’s Involvement with Multiple Systems in the Social EnvironmentWe have established that people are constantly and dynamically involved in interactions with their so-cial environment. Social work assessment tries to answer this question: What is it in any particular situation that causes a problem to continue despite the client’s expressed wish to change it? An ecosys-tems approach provides a perspective for assessing many aspects of a situation. Clients are affected by and in constant dynamic interactions with other sys-tems, including families, groups, organizations, and communities. Figure 1.4 portrays the dynamic in-teractions of clients with other systems in the social environment.
Micro, Mezzo, and Macro SystemsA system is a set of elements that are interrelated to make a functional whole. For our purposes, we will distinguish three basic types of systems throughout
this text: micro, mezzo, and macro systems. Micro sys-tem refers to an individual. In a broad sense, a person is a type of system that entails biological, psychologi-cal, and social systems. All of these systems interact. A micro orientation to social work practice involves focusing on an individual’s needs, problems, and strengths. It also stresses how that individual might address issues, generate solutions, and make the best, most effective choices possible. Micro practice, then, involves working with an individual and enhancing that person’s functioning. Issues concerning micro systems are addressed throughout the text. Examples include dimensions of physical and psychological de-velopment and maturity (all chapters on biological and psychological systems throughout the lifespan), women’s resilience after violence (Chapter 9), identity development as an LGBT person (Chapter 13), and grief management (Chapter 15).
Mezzo system refers to any small group, includ-ing family, work groups, and other social groups. Sometimes for assessment purposes it is difficult to clearly differentiate between issues involving a mi-cro system (individual) and a mezzo system (small group) with which the individual is involved. This is because individuals are so integrally involved in in-teractions with others close to them. In many cases, we will make an arbitrary distinction between an is-sue concerning a micro system and one concerning a mezzo system. Examples of content about mezzo systems in this text include the importance of play with peers and participation in school for children (Chapter 4), empowerment through social work with groups (Chapter 8), the functions of nonverbal com-munication (Chapter 11), and family issues for older adults (Chapter 15).
Macro system refers to a system larger than a small group. A macro orientation involves focus-ing on the social, political, and economic condi-tions and policies that affect people’s overall access to resources and quality of life. Macro practice in social work, then, involves striving to improve the social and economic context in which people live. Examples of content in this text about macro sys-tems and how they affect people include the impacts of policies concerning abortion (Chapter 2), legisla-tion regarding people with disabilities (Chapter 3), strategies to promote social and economic justice (Chapter 5), community responses to battered women (Chapter 9), and current services for older adults (Chapter 16).
Each individual is involved in multiple systems consisting offamilies, groups, organizations, and communities.
FamilySystem
(Micro/Mezzosystem)
Organizations(Macro
systems)
Communities(Macro
systems)
TheIndividual
(Microsystem)
(Mezzosystems)
Groups
SocialWork
FIGURE 1.4 Human Behavior Involves Multiple Systems
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3 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Interactions Between Micro Systems and Macro SystemsIndividual micro systems are also continuously and se-riously affected by the macro systems with which they interact within the social environment. Two major types of macro systems impact individual clients: com-munities and organizations. The two are intertwined.
A community is “a number of people with something in common that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others”; the common feature might be a neighborhood where people live, an activity people share such as a job, or other connections such as “ethnic identification” (Homan, 2011, p. 8).
Organizations are structured groups of people who come together to work toward some mutual goal and perform established work activities that are
divided among various units. Organizations gener-ally have a clearly defined membership in terms of knowing who is in and who is out.
We have emphasized the importance of clients’ interactions with the many systems engulfing them. It is easy for practitioners, especially those who are new to the field, to focus on micro and mezzo sys-tems. Assuming a “clinical” approach targets trying to change individuals within the context of small groups and families.
We have also emphasized that a unique and vi-tal aspect of social work is assessing the effects of macro systems on individual client systems. Two broad theoretical perspectives that most clearly un-derlie practice with large systems are organizational theory and community theory.
People and the environment are affected by social, political, and economic conditions at the macro level. Here, auto workers march against Wall Street.
Jim
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t/A
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 37
Organizational theory includes specific attempts to understand how organizations function, what im-proves or impairs the ability of an organization to accomplish its mission, and what motivates people to work toward organizational goals. Some ap-proaches to organizational theory have focused on management or leadership style; others have dealt with structural issues such as organizational hier-archy, planning, staffing patterns, and budgeting. Groups considered as organizations include virtually every structure with staff, policies, and procedures whose purpose is to continue operation in order to attain certain goals. For example, schools, public so-cial welfare departments, and an agency operating four group homes for adults with intellectual dis-abilities are all types of organizations.
The second theoretical framework, community theory, has two primary components. First, it in-volves perspectives on the nature of communities. What constitutes a particular community? How are its boundaries defined? You may think of a com-munity as having specific geographical boundaries, like Muleshoe, Texas, or Mattawamkeag, Maine, or Devil’s Den, Wyoming. However, a community may also be a group of people with shared ideas, inter-ests, and allegiances, like the professional social work community, the military community, or a vir-tual community.
The second thrust of community theory involves how social workers practice within the community context. How can practitioners improve commu-nity services and conditions? What skills must social workers acquire to enhance clients’ quality of life within their community? (Community change theory is more fully described in Chapter 5.)
LO 6 Recognize Social Worker RolesA Variety of RolesIn working with individuals, groups, families, orga-nizations, and communities, a social worker is ex-pected to be knowledgeable and skillful in filling a variety of roles. The particular role selected should (ideally) be determined by what will be most effec-tive, given the circumstances. The following material identifies some, but certainly not all, of the roles as-sumed by social workers.
EnablerIn this role, a worker helps individuals or groups to articulate their needs, clarify and identify their prob-lems, explore resolution strategies, select and apply a strategy, and develop their capacities to deal with problems more effectively. This role model is perhaps the most frequently used approach in counseling in-dividuals, groups, and families, and is used in com-munity practice—primarily when the objective is to help people organize to help themselves.
(It should be noted that this definition of the term enabler is very different from the definition used in ref-erence to chemical dependency. There the term refers to a family member or friend who facilitates the substance abuser in persisting in the use and abuse of drugs.)
BrokerA broker links individuals and groups who need help (and do not know where to find it) with commu-nity services. For example, a wife who is physically abused by her husband might be referred to a shelter for battered women. Nowadays even moderate-sized communities have 200–300 social service agencies and organizations. Even human services profession-als are often only partially aware of the total service network in their community.
AdvocateThe role of advocate has been borrowed from the law profession. It is an active, directive role in which the social worker represents a client or a citizens’ group. When a client or a citizens’ group needs help and existing institutions are uninterested (or openly neg-ative and hostile), the advocate’s role may be appro-priate. The advocate provides leadership in collecting information, arguing the validity of the client’s need and request, and challenging the institution’s decision not to provide services. The purpose is not to ridicule or censure a particular institution but rather to mod-ify or change one or more of its service policies. In this role, the advocate is a partisan who is exclusively serving the interests of a client or a citizens’ group.
EmpowererA key goal of social work practice is empowerment, the process of helping individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities increase their per-sonal, interpersonal, socioeconomic, and political strength and influence. Social workers who engage in empowerment-focused practice seek to develop
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3 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
the capacity of clients to understand their environ-ment, make choices, take responsibility for those choices, and influence their life situations through organization and advocacy. Empowerment-focused social workers also seek a more equitable distribu-tion of resources and power among different groups in society. This focus on equity and social justice has been a hallmark of the social work profession, as practiced by Jane Addams and other early settle-ment workers.
ActivistAn activist seeks basic institutional change; often the objective involves a shift in power and resources to a disadvantaged group. An activist is concerned about social injustice, inequity, and deprivation. Tac-tics involve conflict, confrontation, and negotiation. Social action is concerned with changing the social environment in order to better meet the recognized needs of individuals. The methods used are asser-tive and action-oriented (for example, organizing welfare recipients to work toward improvements in services and increases in money payments). Activi-ties of social action include fact-finding, analysis of community needs, research, dissemination and inter-pretation of information, organizing activities with people, and other efforts to mobilize public under-standing and support on behalf of some existing or proposed social program. Social action activity can be geared toward a problem that is local, statewide, or national in scope.
MediatorThe mediator role involves intervention in disputes between parties to help them find compromises, reconcile differences, or reach mutually satisfactory agreements. Social workers have used their value orientations and unique skills in many forms of me-diation (for example, divorcing spouses, neighbors in conflict, landlords and tenants, labor and manage-ment, and contenders for child custody). A mediator remains neutral, not siding with either party in the dispute. Mediators make sure they understand the positions of both parties. They may help to clarify positions, identify miscommunication about differ-ences, and help both parties present their cases clearly.
NegotiatorA negotiator brings together people in conflict and seeks to bargain and compromise to find mutually acceptable agreements. Somewhat like mediation,
negotiation involves finding a middle ground that all sides can live with. However, unlike a mediator (who maintains a neutral position), a negotiator is usually allied with one side or the other.
EducatorThe educator gives infor mation to clients and teaches them adaptive skills. To be an effective educator, the worker must first be knowledgeable. Additionally, the worker must be a good communi-cator so information is conveyed clearly and readily understood by the receiver. An educator can teach parenting skills to young parents, instruct teen-agers in job-hunting strategies, and teach anger-control techniques to individuals with aggressive tendencies.
InitiatorAn initiator calls attention to a problem or to a po-tential problem. It is important to recognize that sometimes a potential problem requires attention. For example, if a proposal is made to renovate a low-income neighborhood by building middle-in-come housing units, the initiator will be concerned that low-income residents could become homeless if the proposal is approved (because these current residents may not be able to afford middle-income units). Because calling attention to problems usually does not resolve them, the initiator role must often be followed by other kinds of work.
CoordinatorCoordination involves bringing components to-gether in an organized manner. For example, a multi-problem family may need help from several agencies to meet its complicated financial, emotional, legal, health, social, educational, recreational, and interac-tional needs. Frequently, someone at an agency must assume the role of case manager to coordinate ser-vices from different agencies and avoid both duplica-tion of services and conflict among the services.
ResearcherAt times every worker is a researcher. Research in so-cial work practice can involve reading literature on topics of interest, evaluating the outcomes of one’s practice, assessing the merits and shortcomings of programs, and studying community needs.
Group FacilitatorA group facilitator serves as a leader for a group dis-cussion in a therapy group, an educational group, a
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 39
HIGHLIGHT 1.10
Knowledge, Skills, and values needed for Social Work PracticeIn Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS), the Council on Social Work Education (2015) identified knowledge, skills, values, and cognitive and affective processes that accredited baccalaureate and master’s degree programs are mandated
to convey to social work students. EPAS is based on a competency approach. The following material is reprinted with permission from EPAS (CSWE, 2015).
The mandated content that Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) and Master of Social Work (MSW) programs are required to provide to students are summarized in the following nine competencies:
Social Work CompetenciesThe nine Social Work Competencies are listed below. Programs may add competencies that are consistent with their mission and goals and respond to their context. Each competency describes the knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affective processes that comprise the competency at the generalist level of practice, followed by a set of behaviors that integrate these components. These behaviors represent observable components of the competencies, while the preceding statements represent the underlying content and processes that inform the behaviors.
Competency 1: Demonstrate Ethical and Professional BehaviorSocial workers understand the value base of the profession and its ethical standards, as well as relevant laws and regulations that may impact practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels. Social workers understand frameworks of ethical decision making and how to apply principles of critical
thinking to those frameworks in practice, research, and policy arenas. Social workers recognize personal values and the distinction between personal and professional values. They also understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions influence their professional judgment and behavior. Social workers understand the profession’s history, its mission, and the roles and responsibilities of the profession. Social Workers also understand the role of other professions when engaged in interprofessional teams. Social workers recognize the importance of lifelong learning and are committed to continually updating their skills to ensure they are relevant and effective. Social workers also understand emerging forms of technology and the ethical use of technology in social work practice. Social workers
● make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision making, ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to context;
● use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal val-ues and maintain professionalism in practice situations;
● demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appear-ance; and oral, written, and electronic communication;
● use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes; and
● use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior.
Competency 2: Engage Diversity and Difference in PracticeSocial workers understand how diversity and difference characterize and shape the human experience and are critical to the formation of identity. The dimensions of
EP 1a through EP 9d
self-help group, a sensitivity group, a family therapy group, or a group with some other focus.
Public SpeakerSocial workers occasionally talk to a variety of groups (e.g., high school classes; public service or-ganizations such as Kiwanis; police officers; staff at other agencies) to inform them of available services or to argue the need for new services. In recent years, various new services have been identified (for exam-ple, family preservation programs and services for people with AIDS). Social workers who have pub-lic speaking skills are better able to explain services
to groups of potential clients and funding sources, and are apt to be rewarded (including financially) by their employers for these skills.
LO 7 Identify Knowledge, Skills, and Values Necessary for Generalist Social Work Practice
(continued)
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4 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
diversity are understood as the intersectionality of multiple factors including but not limited to age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status. Social workers understand that, as a consequence of difference, a person’s life experiences may include oppression, poverty, marginalization, and alienation as well as privilege, power, and acclaim. Social workers also understand the forms and mechanisms of oppression and discrimination and recognize the extent to which a culture’s structures and values, including social, economic, political, and cultural exclusions, may oppress, marginalize, alienate, or create privilege and power. Social workers
● apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;
● present themselves as learners and engage clients and con-stituencies as experts of their own experiences; and
● apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies.
Competency 3: Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and Environmental JusticeSocial workers understand that every person regardless of position in society has fundamental human rights such as freedom, safety, privacy, an adequate standard of living, health care, and education. Social workers understand the global interconnections of oppression and human rights violations, and are knowledgeable about theories of human need and social justice and strategies to promote social and economic justice and human rights. Social workers understand strategies designed to eliminate oppressive structural barriers to ensure that social goods, rights, and responsibilities are distributed equitably and that civil, political, environmental, economic, social, and cultural human rights are protected. Social workers
● apply their understanding of social, economic, and en-vironmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels; and
● engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice.
Competency 4: Engage in Practice-Informed Research and Research-Informed PracticeSocial workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their respective roles in advancing a science of social work and in evaluating their practice. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and culturally informed and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social workers understand that evidence that
informs practice derives from multidisciplinary sources and multiple ways of knowing. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into effective practice. Social workers
● use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
● apply critical thinking to engage in analysis of quantita-tive and qualitative research methods and research find-ings; and
● use and translate research evidence to inform and improve practice, policy, and service delivery.
Competency 5: Engage in Policy PracticeSocial workers understand that human rights and social justice, as well as social welfare and services, are mediated by policy and its implementation at the federal, state, and local levels. Social workers understand the history and current structures of social policies and services, the role of policy in service delivery, and the role of practice in policy development. Social workers understand their role in policy development and implementation within their practice settings at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels, and they actively engage in policy practice to effect change within those settings. Social workers recognize and understand the historical, social, cultural, economic, organizational, environmental, and global influences that affect social policy. They are also knowledgeable about policy formulation, analysis, implementation, and evaluation. Social workers
● identify social policy at the local, state, and federal level that impacts well-being, service delivery, and access to social services;
● assess how social welfare and economic policies impact the delivery of and access to social services;
● apply critical thinking to analyze, formulate, and advocate for policies that advance human rights and social, eco-nomic, and environmental justice.
Competency 6: Engage with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and CommunitiesSocial workers understand that engagement is an ongoing component of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers value the importance of human relationships. Social workers understand theories of human behavior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge to facilitate engagement with clients and constituencies, including individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand strategies to engage diverse clients and constituencies to advance practice
HIGHLIGHT 1.10 (continued)
(continued)
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 41
HIGHLIGHT 1.10 (continued)
effectiveness. Social workers understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions may impact their ability to effectively engage with diverse clients and constituencies. Social workers value principles of relationship-building and interprofessional collaboration to facilitate engagement with clients, constituencies, and other professionals as appropriate. Social workers
● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social envi-ronment, person-in-environment, and other multidisci-plinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies; and
● use empathy, reflection, and interpersonal skills to effec-tively engage diverse clients and constituencies.
Competency 7: Assess Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and CommunitiesSocial workers understand that assessment is an ongoing component of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand theories of human behavior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge in the assessment of diverse clients and constituencies, including individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand methods of assessment with diverse clients and constituencies to advance practice effectiveness. Social workers recognize the implications of the larger practice context in the assessment process and value the importance of interprofessional collaboration in this process. Social workers understand how their personal experiences and affective reactions may affect their assessment and decision making. Social workers
● collect and organize data, and apply critical thinking to interpret information from clients and constituencies;
● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social envi-ronment, person-in-environment, and other multidiscipli-nary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
● develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objec-tives based on the critical assessment of strengths, needs, and challenges within clients and constituencies; and
● select appropriate intervention strategies based on the as-sessment, research knowledge, and values and preferences of clients and constituencies.
Competency 8: Intervene with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and CommunitiesSocial workers understand that intervention is an ongoing component of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities, Social
workers are knowledgeable about evidence-infor med interventions to achieve the goals of clients and constituencies, including individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities. Social workers understand theories of human behavior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge to effectively intervene with clients and constituencies. Social workers understand methods of identifying, analyzing and implementing evidence-informed interventions to achieve client and constituency goals. Social workers value the importance of interprofessional teamwork and communication in interventions, recognizing that beneficial outcomes may require interdisciplinary, interprofessional, and interorganizational collaboration. Social workers
● critically choose and implement interventions to achieve practice goals and enhance capacities of clients and constituencies;
● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social envi-ronment, person-in-environment, and other multidiscipli-nary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies;
● use interprofessional collaboration as appropriate to achieve beneficial practice outcomes;
● negotiate, mediate, and advocate with and on behalf of diverse clients and constituencies; and
● facilitate effective transitions and endings that advance mutually agreed-on goals.
Competency 9: Evaluate Practice with Individuals, Families, Groups, Organizations, and CommunitiesSocial workers understand that evaluation is an ongoing component of the dynamic and interactive process of social work practice with, and on behalf of, diverse individuals, families, groups, organizations and communities. Social workers recognize the importance of evaluating processes and outcomes to advance practice, policy, and service delivery effectiveness. Social workers understand theories of human behavior and the social environment, and critically evaluate and apply this knowledge in evaluating outcomes. Social workers understand qualitative and quantitative methods for evaluating outcomes and practice effectiveness. Social workers
● select and use appropriate methods for evaluation of outcomes;
● apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multi-disciplinary theoretical frameworks in the evaluation of outcomes;
● critically analyze, monitor, and evaluate intervention and program processes and outcomes; and
● apply evaluation findings to improve practice effectiveness at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels.
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42 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to do the following:
LO 1 Explain the importance of foundation knowledge for social work with an emphasis on assessment.This book provides a knowledge base in preparation for social work practice. Social workers need knowledge in order to understand the dynamics of human behavior and conduct client assessments. The social work pro-cess then involves helping clients identify and evaluate available alternatives to select the best plan of action.
LO 2 Review the organization of this book that emphasizes lifespan development.This book is organized using a lifespan approach. The lifespan is divided into four phases: infancy and
childhood, adolescence, young and middle adult-hood, and later adulthood.
Chapters on biological, psychological, and social (bio-psycho-social) aspects of development portray common life events, normal developmental milestones, and relevant issues for each life phase.
LO 3 Describe important concepts for understand-ing human behavior (that are stressed throughout the book and include human diversity, cultural competency, oppression, populations-at-risk, em-powerment, the strengths perspective, resiliency, human rights, and critical thinking about ethical issues).Human diversity is the vast range of human differ-ences among groups, including those related to “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, reli-gion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (CSWE, 2015).
Important Concepts Stressed in This Book
Critical thinking: “the careful examination and evaluation of beliefs and actions” to establish an independent decision about what is true and what is not (Gambrill & Gibbs, 2009, p. 4).
Cultural competency: “the mastery of a particular set of knowledge, skills, policies, and programs used by the social worker that address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities” (lum, 2005, p. 4).
Economic justice: an ideal condition in which all members of a society have the same opportunities to attain material goods, income, and wealth.
Empowerment: “the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210).
Ethical dilemmas: Situations in which ethical principles conflict and all solutions are imperfect.
Human diversity: the vast range of human differences and the effects they have on human behavior.
Human rights: the premise that all people, regardless of race, culture, or national origin, are entitled to basic rights and treatment.
Oppression: the condition of putting unfair and extreme limitations and constraints on members of an identified group.
Populations-at-risk: any group of people who share some identifiable characteristic that places them at greater risk of social and economic deprivations and oppression than the general mainstream of society.
Poverty: the condition of “not having enough money to buy things that are considered necessary and desirable” (Kornblum & Julian, 2012, p. 196).
Resiliency: the ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.
Social justice: an ideal condition in which all members of a society have the same basic “rights, protection, opportunities, obligations, and social benefits” (Barker, 2003, p. 405).
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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Introduction to Human Behavior and the Social Environment 4 3
Cultural competency is “the mastery of a particular set of knowledge, skills, policies, and programs used by the social worker that address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities” (Lum, 2005, p. 4).
Discrimination is the act of treating people differently because they belong to some group rather than on merit. Oppression involves putting unfair and extreme limitations and constraints on members of an identified group. A population-at-risk is any group of people who share some identifiable characteristic that places them at greater risk of social and economic deprivation and oppression than the general mainstream of society.
Empowerment is “the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). The strengths perspective is an orientation that focuses on client resources, capabilities, knowledge, abilities, motivations, experience, intelligence, and other positive qualities that can be put to use to solve problems and pursue positive changes. Empowerment based on strengths can occur at the individual, group, organizational, and community levels. Resiliency is the ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.
Human rights involve the premise that all people, regardless of race, culture, or national origin, are entitled to basic rights and treatment.
Critical thinking can be used to address ethical issues and dilemmas. Critical thinking is “the careful examination and evaluation of beliefs and actions” to establish an independent decision about what is true and what is not (Gambrill & Gibbs, 2009, p. 4). Ethical dilemmas are situations where ethical principles conflict and all solutions are imperfect. Critical-thinking questions about ethical issues are interspersed throughout the book.
LO 4 Employ a conceptual framework for understanding human behavior and the social environment: ecosystems theory.Ecosystems theory is “systems theory used to de-scribe and analyze people and other living systems and their transactions” (Beckett & Johnson, 1995, p. 1391). It offers a framework for viewing human
behavior that incorporates concepts from systems theories and the ecological perspective, and pro-vides this book’s theoretical orientation. Relevant systems theory concepts include system, boundar-ies, subsystem, homeostasis, role, relationship, input, output, feedback, interface, differentiation, entropy, negative entropy, and equifinality. Pertinent con-cepts from the ecological perspective include social environment, transactions, energy, interface, adapta-tion, coping, and interdependence.
LO 5 Recognize people’s involvement with multiple systems in the social environment.People are involved with multiple systems in their en-vironment. A micro system is an individual. A mezzo system is a small group. A macro system is a system larger than a small group. Macro systems that are primary contexts for human behavior include com-munities and organizations.
LO 6 Recognize social worker roles.Social workers can perform the following roles as they practice in the context of organizations and communities: enabler, mediator, coordinator, man-ager, educator, evaluator, broker, facilitator, initiator, negotiator, and advocate.
LO 7 Identify knowledge, skills, and values necessary for generalist social work practice.The nine competencies and their respective 31 be-haviors necessary for effective generalist social work practice are cited.
COMPETENCY NOTESThis section relates chapter content to the Council on Social Work Education’s (CSWE) Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) (CSWE, 2015).
One major goal of social work education is to facilitate students’ attainment of the EPAS-designated nine core competencies and their 31 related behaviors so that students develop into competent practitioners.
Students require knowledge in order to develop skills and become competent. Our intent here is to specify what chapter content and knowledge coincides with the development of specific competencies and behaviors. (This ultimately is intended to assist in the accreditation process.) Therefore, the following listing
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4 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
first cites the various Educational Policy (EP) core competencies and their related behaviors (which are alphabetized beneath competencies) that are relevant to chapter content. Note that most of the listing follows the order that competencies and behaviors are cited in the EPAS.
We have established (See the Special Notes section at the end of this chapter) that “helping hands” icons such as that illustrated in this paragraph are interspersed throughout the chapter
indicating where relevant accompanying content is located. Page numbers noted below indicate where icons are placed in the chapter. Following the icon’s page number is a brief explanation of how the content accompanying the icon relates to the specified competency or practice behavior.
EP1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 2, 46)Ethical questions are posed.
EP6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
EP8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies (all of this chapter).Material on concepts and theories about human behavior and the social environment are presented throughout this chapter.
EP1a through EP 9d: All the competencies and behaviors of 2015 EPAS (pp. 57–61). This section reprints the knowledge, skills, values, and cognitive and affective processes needed for social work practice, as stated in 2015 EPAS.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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4 5
CH
AP
TE
R
2Biological Development
in infancy anD chilDhooD
Juanita lovingly watched her 1-year-old Enrico as he lay in his crib playing with his toes. Enrico was her first child, and Juanita was very proud of him. She was bothered, however, that he could not sit up by himself. Living next door was a baby about Enrico’s age, whose name was Teresa. Not only could she sit up by herself, but she could crawl, stand alone, and was even starting to walk. Juanita thought it was odd that the two children could be so different and have such different personalities. That must be the reason, she thought. Enrico was just an easygoing child. Perhaps he was also a bit stubborn. Juanita decided that she wouldn’t worry about it. In a few weeks, Enrico would probably start to sit up.
Cam
ille
Toke
rud/
Taxi
/Get
ty Im
ages
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4 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Knowledge of typical human development is critical in order to understand and moni-tor the progress of children as they grow. In this example, Enrico was indeed showing some developmental lags. He was in need of an evaluation to determine his physical and psychological status so that he might receive help.
A PerspectiveThe attainment of typical developmental milestones has a direct impact on the client. Biological, psychological, and social development systems operate together to affect be-havior. This chapter will explore some of the major aspects of infancy and childhood that social workers must understand in order to provide information to clients and make ap-propriate assessments of client behavior.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Describe the dynamics of human reproduction (including con-ception, the diagnosis of pregnancy, fetal development, prenatal influ-ences and assessment, problem pregnancies, and the birth process)LO 2 Explain typical developmental milestones for infants and childrenLO 3 Examine the abortion controversy (in addition to the impacts of social and economic forces)LO 4 Explain infertility (including the causes, the psychological reac-tions to infertility, the treatment of infertility, the assessment process, alternatives available to infertile couples, and social work roles con-cerning infertility)
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
LO 1 Describe the Dynamics of Human ReproductionChuck and Christine had mixed emotions about the pregnancy. It had been an accident. They were both in their mid-30s and already had a vivacious 4-year-old daughter named Hope. Although Hope had been a joy to both of them, she had also placed serious restrictions on their lifestyle. They were looking for-ward to her beginning school. Christine had begun to work part-time and was planning to go full-time as soon as Hope turned 5.
Now all that had changed. To complicate the mat-ter, Chuck, a university professor, had just received
an exciting job offer in Hong Kong—the oppor-tunity of a lifetime. They had always dreamed of spending time overseas.
The unexpected pregnancy provided Chuck and Christine with quite a jolt. Should they terminate the pregnancy and go on with their lives in exotic Hong Kong? Should they have the baby overseas? Ques-tions concerning foreign prenatal care, health con-ditions, and health facilities flooded their thoughts. Would it be safer to remain in the United States and turn down this golden opportunity? Christine was 35. Her reproductive clock was ticking away. Soon risk factors concerning having a healthy, nor-mal baby would begin to skyrocket. This might be
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 47
their last chance to have a second child. Chuck and Christine did some serious soul-searching and fact-searching to arrive at their decision.
Yes, they would have the baby. Once the decision had been made, they were filled with relief and joy. They also decided to take the job in Hong Kong. They would use the knowledge they had about pre-natal care, birth, and infancy to maximize the chance of having a healthy, normal baby. They concluded that this baby was a blessing who would improve, not impair, the quality of their lives.
The decision to have children is a serious one. Ideally, a couple should examine all alternatives. Children can be wonderful. Family life can bring pleasurable activities, pride, and fullness to life. On the other hand, children can cause stress. They demand attention, time, and effort and can be ex-pensive to care for. Information about conception, pregnancy, birth, and child rearing can only help people make better, more effective decisions.
ConceptionSperm meets egg; a child is conceived. But in actu-ality, it is not quite that simple. Many couples who strongly desire to have children have difficulty con-ceiving. Many others whose last desire is to conceive do so with ease. Some amount of chance is involved.
Conception refers to the act of becoming preg-nant. Sperm need to be deposited in the vagina near the time of ovulation. Ovulation involves the ovary’s release of a mature egg into the body cavity near the end of one of the fallopian tubes. Fingerlike projec-tions called fimbriae at the end of the fallopian tube draw the egg into the tube. From there, the egg is gently moved along inside the tube by tiny hairlike extensions called cilia. Fertilization actually occurs in the third of the fallopian tube nearest the ovary.
If a sperm has gotten that far, conception may occur. After ejaculation, the discharge of semen by the penis, the sperm travels up into the uterus and through the fallopian tube to meet the egg. Sperm are equipped with a tail that can lash back and forth, propelling them forward. The typical ejaculate, an amount of approximately one teaspoon, usually contains 200 to 400 million sperm; however, only 1 in 1,000 of these will ever make it to the area im-mediately surrounding the egg (Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2014). Unlike females, who are born with a finite number of eggs, males continually
produce new sperm. Fertilization is therefore quite competitive. It is also hazardous. The majority of these sperm don’t get very far (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Rathus et al., 2014). Many spill out of the vagina, drawn by gravity. Others are killed by the acidity of the vagina. Still others swim up the wrong fallopian tube, meaning the one without the egg. Only about 2,000 sperm make it up the right tube. By the time a sperm reaches the egg, it has swum a distance 3,000 times its own length; an equivalent swim for a human being would be more than 3 miles (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
Although sperm are healthiest and most likely to fertilize an egg during the first 24 hours after ejaculation, they may survive up to 72 hours in a woman’s reproductive tract; an egg’s peak fertil-ity is within the first 8 to 12 hours after ovulation, although it may remain viable for fertilization for up to 24 hours, and some may remain viable for up to five days (Greenberg, Bruess, & Oswalt, 2017; Newman & Newman, 2015). Therefore, sexual inter-course should ideally occur not more than five days before or one day after ovulation for fertilization to take place (Yarber & Sayad, 2016).
In the fallopian tube, the egg apparently secretes a chemical substance that attracts sperm. The actual fertilization process involves sperm reaching the egg, secreting an enzyme, and depositing it on the egg. This enzyme helps dissolve a gelatinous layer sur-rounding the egg and allows for the penetration of a sperm. After one sperm has penetrated the barrier, the gelatinous layer undergoes a physical change, thus preventing other sperm from entering it.
Fertilization occurs during the exact moment the egg and sperm combine. Eggs that are not fertilized by sperm simply disintegrate. The genetic material in the egg and sperm combine to form a single cell called a zygote.
Eggs contain an X chromosome. Sperm may con-tain either an X or a Y chromosome. Eggs fertilized by a sperm with an X chromosome will result in a female; those fertilized by sperm with a Y chromo-some will result in a male.
The single-celled zygote begins a cell division pro-cess in which the cell divides to form two cells, then four, then eight, and so on. Within a week, the new mass of cells, called a blastocyst, attaches itself to the lining of the uterus. If attachment does not oc-cur, the newly formed blastocyst is simply expelled. From the point of attachment until eight weeks of
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4 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
gestation, the conceptus, or product of conception, is called an embryo. From eight weeks until birth, it is referred to as a fetus. Gestation refers to the period of time from conception to birth.
Diagnosis of PregnancyPregnancy can be diagnosed by using laboratory tests, by observing the mother’s physical symptoms, or by performing a physical examination. Early symptoms of pregnancy can include increase in basal body temperature that lasts for up to 3 weeks, breast tenderness, feelings of fatigue, and nausea (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Many women first become aware of the pregnancy when they miss a menstrual period. However, women also can miss periods as a result of stress, illness, or worry about possible pregnancy. Some pregnant women will even continue to men-struate for a month or even more. Therefore, lab tests are often needed to confirm a pregnancy. Such lab tests are 98 to 99 percent accurate and can be per-formed at a Planned Parenthood agency, a medical clinic, or a physician’s office (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Rathus et al., 2014).
Most pregnancy tests work by detecting human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in a woman’s urine or blood. HCG is a hormone secreted by the placenta (the tissue structure that nurtures a developing em-bryo). Laboratory tests can detect HCG as early as eight days after conception (Greenberg et al., 2014).
The use of home pregnancy tests (HPTs) has be-come quite common. Like some laboratory tests, they measure HCG levels in urine. They are very convenient, relatively inexpensive and can be used as early as the first day a menstrual period was sup-posed to start. However, they are more likely to be accurate if administered after more time has passed.
Most HPTs function in a similar fashion. The user holds a stick in the urine stream or collects urine in a cup and dips the stick into it. Most tests have a results window indicating whether a woman is preg-nant or not. Most tests also stress retaking the test a few days or a week later to confirm its accuracy.
Because HCG increases as the pregnancy pro-gresses, HPTs become more accurate as time goes on. “Many home pregnancy tests claim to be 99 percent accurate on the day you miss your period. Although research suggests that most home pregnancy tests don’t consistently spot pregnancy this early, home pregnancy tests are considered reliable when used
according to package instructions one week after a missed period” (Mayo Clinic, 2013c).
Although HPTs can be highly accurate, there is room for error. If instructions are not followed per-fectly, results can be faulty. For instance, exposure to sunlight, accidental vibrations, using an unclean container to collect urine, or examining results too early or too late all can end in an erroneous diag-nosis. False negatives (i.e., showing that a woman is not pregnant when she really is) are more common than false positives (i.e., showing that a woman is pregnant when she really is not). Regardless, it is suggested that a woman confirm the results either by waiting a week and administering another HPT or by having a laboratory diagnosis performed. Early knowledge of pregnancy is important either to begin early health care or to make a decision about termi-nating a pregnancy.
Fetal Development During PregnancyAn average human pregnancy lasts about 266 days after conception (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). How-ever, there is a great amount of variability in the length of pregnancies among mothers. It is most easily conceptualized in terms of trimesters, or three periods of three months each. Each trimester is char-acterized by certain aspects of fetal development.
The First TrimesterThe first trimester is sometimes considered the most critical. Because of the embryo’s rapid differentia-tion and development of tissue, the embryo is excep-tionally vulnerable to the mother’s intake of noxious substances and to aspects of the mother’s health.
By the end of the first month, a primitive heart and digestive system have developed. The basic initi-ation of a brain and nervous system is also apparent. Small buds that will eventually become arms and legs are appearing. In general, development starts with the brain and continues down through the body. For example, the feet are the last to develop. In the first month, the embryo bears little resemblance to a baby because its organs have just begun to differentiate.
The embryo begins to resemble human form more closely during the second month. Internal organs be-come more complex. Facial features including eyes, nose, and mouth begin to become identifiable. The 2-month-old embryo is less than an inch long and weighs about one-third of an ounce.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 49
The third month involves the formation of arms, hands, legs, and feet. Fingernails, hair follicles, and eyelids develop. All the basic organs have appeared, although they are still underdeveloped. By the end of the third month, bones begin to replace cartilage. Fetal movement is frequently detected at this time.
During the first trimester, the mother experi-ences various symptoms. This is primarily due to the tremendous increase in the amount of hor-mones her body is producing. Symptoms frequently include tiredness, breast enlargement and tender-ness, frequent urination, and food cravings. Some women experience nausea, referred to as morning sickness.
It might be noted that these symptoms resemble those often cited by women when first taking birth control pills. In effect, the pill, by introducing nat-ural or artificial hormones that resemble those of pregnancy, tricks the body into thinking it is preg-nant, thus preventing ovulation. The pill as a form of contraception is discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 6.
The Second TrimesterFetal development continues during the second tri-mester. Toes and fingers separate. Skin, fingerprints, hair, and eyes develop. A fairly regular heartbeat emerges. The fetus begins to sleep and wake at regu-lar times. Its thumb may be inserted into its mouth.
For the mother, most of the unappealing symp-toms of the first trimester subside. She is more likely to feel the fetus’s vigorous movement. Her abdomen expands significantly. Some women suffer edema, or water retention, which results in swollen hands, face, ankles, or feet.
The Third TrimesterThe third trimester involves completing the develop-ment of the fetus. Fatty tissue forms underneath the skin, filling out the fetus’s human form. Internal or-gans complete their development and become ready to function. The brain and nervous system become completely developed.
An important concept that becomes relevant dur-ing the sixth and seventh months of gestation is via-bility. This refers to the ability of the fetus to survive on its own if separated from its mother. Although a fetus reaches viability by about the middle of the second trimester, many infants born at 22–25 weeks “do not survive, even with intensive medical care, and many of those who do experience chronic health
or neurological problems” (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. 100).
The viability issue becomes especially critical in the context of abortion. The question involves the ethics of aborting a fetus that, with external medical help, might be able to survive. This issue underscores the importance of obtaining an abortion early in the pregnancy when that is the chosen course of action.
For the mother, the third trimester may be a time of some discomfort. The uterus expands, and the mother’s abdomen becomes large and heavy. The additional weight frequently stresses muscles and skeleton, often resulting in backaches or muscle cramps. The size of the uterus may exert pressure on other organs, causing discomfort. Some of the added weight can be attributed to the baby itself, amniotic fluid, and the placenta. Other normal weight in-creases include those of the uterus, blood, and breasts as part of the body’s natural adaptation to pregnancy.
Pregnancy AppsMany women now use technology as a way to get advice about their pregnancy and parenting. Mobile apps, such as “BabyBump Pregnancy,” “My Preg-nancy & Baby Today,” “WebMD Pregnancy,” and “Parenting Tips,” help parents by providing informa-tion on subjects such as tracking your period, what to expect during your pregnancy, what your baby looks like in the womb (complete with pictures and photos), fetal development information, tips on how to have a healthy pregnancy, questions to ask at doc-tors’ appointments, contraction timing, and much more. For those who want up-to-date advice or in-formation, an app might be a source of information to look into. It is important to note, however, that these apps should not be used as a substitute for the prenatal care given by a medical professional, espe-cially for women with at-risk pregnancies.
Prenatal InfluencesNumerous factors can influence the health and de-velopment of the fetus. These include the expectant mother’s nutrition, drugs and medication, alcohol consumption, smoking habits, age, stress, and a number of other factors.
NutritionA pregnant woman is indeed eating for two. In the past, pregnant women were afraid of gaining too much weight. But a woman should usually gain
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5 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
25 to 35 pounds during her pregnancy (Berk, 2013; Kail & Cavenaugh, 2013; Sigelman & Rider, 2012). She typically requires 300 to 500 additional calo-ries daily to adequately nurture the fetus (Papalia & Martorell, 2015).
The optimal weight gain depends on the woman’s height and her weight prior to pregnancy. For exam-ple, a woman who is underweight before pregnancy might require a greater weight gain to maintain a healthy pregnancy.
Being underweight or overweight poses risks to the fetus. Too little weight gain due to malnutrition can result in low infant birth weight, increased risk of mental or motor impairment, and a higher risk of infant mortality (Berk, 2013; Newman & Newman, 2015). Being overweight either before or during preg-nancy can increase the risk of miscarriage and other complications during pregnancy and birth (Chu et al., 2008), in addition to birth defects (Stothard, Tenant, Bell, & Rankin, 2009).
Not only does a pregnant woman need to eat more, but the quality of food also needs careful monitoring and attention. It is especially important for pregnant women to get enough protein, iron, calcium, and folic acid (a B vitamin), in addition to other vitamins and minerals (Berk, 2013; Kail & Cavenaugh, 2013). As Hyde and DeLamater (2017) explain,
Protein is important for building new tissues. Folic acid is also important for growth; symptoms of folic acid deficiency are anemia [low red blood cell count] and fatigue. A pregnant woman needs much more iron than usual, because the fetus draws off iron for itself from the blood that circulates to the placenta. Muscle cramps, nerve pains, uterine ligament pains, sleeplessness, and irritability may all be symptoms of a calcium deficiency. (p. 127)
Drugs and MedicationBecause the effects of many drugs on the fetus are unclear, pregnant women are cautioned to be wary of drug use. Drugs may cross the placenta and enter the bloodstream of the fetus. Any drugs should be taken only after consultation with a physician. The effects of such drugs usually depend on the amount taken and the gestation stage during which they are taken. This is especially true for the first trimester, when the embryo is very vulnerable.
Teratogens are substances, including drugs, that cause malformations in the fetus. Certain drugs can cause malformations of certain body parts or organs.
The so-called thalidomide babies of the early 1960s provide a tragic example of the potential effects of drugs. Thalidomide, a type of tranquilizer used to ease morning sickness, was found to produce either flipper-like appendages in place of arms or legs, or no arms or legs at all.
A variety of prescription drugs can produce ter-atogenic effects. These include antibiotics such as tetracycline and streptomycin, Accutane (an acne drug), and some antidepressants (Rathus et al., 2014; Santrock, 2016). Generally speaking, women should avoid taking drugs or medications during pregnancy and while breastfeeding unless such medication is absolutely necessary.
Even nonprescription, over-the-counter drugs such as Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) or caffeine should be consumed with caution (Santrock, 2016). Aspirin can cause bleeding problems in the fetus (Steinberg et al., 2011a). Coffee, tea, colas, and choc-olate all contain caffeine. The research findings con-cerning the effects of caffeine on a fetus have been mixed (Maslova, Bhattacharya, Lin, & Michels, 2010; Minnes, Lang, & Singer, 2011; Rathus, 2014a). However, some research results have revealed a greater risk of low birth weight (Rathus, 2014a; Santrock, 2016). Even vitamins should be consumed with care and only under a physician’s supervision (Rathus et al., 2014; Steinberg et al., 2011a). An ex-pectant mother’s best bet is to be cautious.
Ethical Question 2.1
EP 1
Should a pregnant woman who consumes alcohol or illegal drugs that damage her child be punished as a criminal? Should her child be taken from her? If so, with whom should the child be placed?
AlcoholAlcohol consumption during pregnancy can have grave effects on a fetus. The condition is termed fe-tal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Babies of women who were heavy drinkers during pregnancy have “unusual facial characteristics [including widely spaced eyes, short nose, and thin upper lip], small head and body size, congenital heart defects, defective joints, and intellectual and behavioral impairment” (Yarber &
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 51
Sayad, 2016, p. 370). Effects stretch into childhood and even adulthood. They include difficulties in pay-ing attention, hyperactivity, lower-than-normal intel-ligence, and significant difficulties in adjustment and social interaction (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). The sever-ity of defects increases with the amount of alcohol consumed during pregnancy (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010). However, there is evidence that even more moderate alcohol consumption, such as one or two drinks a day, can harm the fetus (Rathus et al., 2014; Shaffer & Kipp, 2010; Steinberg et al., 2011a). Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) is a condition that manifests relatively less severe (yet still significant) problems, presum-ably resulting from lower levels of alcohol consump-tion during pregnancy.
Drugs of AbuseIllegal drugs, such as cocaine (a powerful stimulant) and heroin (an opioid), can cause significant prob-lems during a pregnancy (Newman & Newman, 2015). Both of these substances can cause infertility, problems with the placenta resulting in the fetus not receiving enough food or oxygen, preterm labor, or death of the fetus via miscarriage or stillborn birth. Babies may be premature, or have low birth weight, heart defects, birth defects, or infections such as hepatitis or AIDS (March of Dimes, 2013). A sig-nificant problem is when the baby develops Neona-tal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS). In NAS, the baby is born addicted to the addictive drugs the mother used during her pregnancy and goes through with-drawal at birth. These babies have a tendency to have lower birth weights, breathing problems, sleep diffi-culties, seizures, and birth defects, and may require a longer stay in the hospital. Signs and symptoms of NAS include body shakes, seizures, excessive crying, trouble sleeping, fever, inability to gain weight, and overall fussiness. All of these symptoms may need to be treated with medications, fluids, or higher-calorie feedings (March of Dimes, 2015).
Marijuana may also cause problems during a pregnancy (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). Studies link marijuana use with premature birth, low birth weight, increased chance of stillbirth, withdrawal symptoms in the baby, and problems with brain development (March of Dimes, 2016). Ingredients in marijuana can also pass to a child during breastfeeding; therefore, it is recommended that breastfeeding moms refrain from marijuana use (March of Dimes, 2016).
Note, however, that it is difficult to separate out the direct effects of specific drugs because of the nu-merous other factors involved (e.g., an impoverished environment or use of other potentially harmful substances by the mother).
SmokingNumerous studies associate smoking with low birth weight, preterm births, breathing difficulties, fe-tal death, and crib death (Rathus, 2014a; Santrock, 2016; Shaffer & Kipp, 2010; Yarber & Sayad, 2013). Even secondhand smoke is thought to pose a danger to the fetus (Rathus, 2014a). Some research found a relationship between a mother’s smoking during pregnancy and a child having behavioral and emo-tional problems when the child reaches school age (Papalia & Martorell, 2017; Rathus, 2014a).
Studies have also found that a father’s smoking during pregnancy may affect the health of the child (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
AgeThe pregnant woman’s age may affect both the woman and the child. Women “between ages 16 and 35 tend to provide a better uterine environment for the developing fetus and to give birth with fewer complications than do women under 16 or over 35” (Newman & Newman, 2015, p. 118). Women aged 35 and older account for more than 16 percent of all births in the United States (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). For example, although a woman who is aged 16 to 34 has a very low risk of having a baby with Down syndrome,1 the likelihood increases to about 1 in 30 births once the mother reaches the age of 45 (Yarber & Sayad, 2016). It is thought that a contrib-uting factor to Down syndrome is deterioration of the female’s egg or the male’s sperm as people age (Newman & Newman, 2015). Mothers aged 40 and over “are also at slightly higher risk for maternal death, premature delivery, cesarean sections, and low-birth-weight babies (London, 2004). As women age, chronic illnesses such as high blood pressure
1Down syndrome is a congenital condition resulting from a chromosomal abnormality. It is characterized by intellectual disability and by physical features including think folds at the corners of the eyes, making them appear slanted; short stature; a wide, short skull; broad hands with short fingers; and wide spaces between the first and second toes (Friend, 2008; Mish, 2008). People with the most common type of Down syndrome, trisomy 21, have an extra chromosome.
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52 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and diabetes may also present pregnancy- and birth-related complications” (Yarber & Sayad, 2013, p. 375).
Teen mothers account for about 24 births per 1,000 females in the United States in 2014 (LOC, 2016). Their infants have twice the mortality rates of infants born to mothers in their 20s (Santrock, 2016). Their infants are more likely to be underweight and experience a greater risk of health problems and dis-abilities (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). Problems are often due to an immature reproductive system, inad-equate nutrition, poor or no prenatal care, and pov-erty (Santrock, 2016; Smithbattle, 2007).
Maternal StressMaternal stress is another factor that can affect fe-tal development (Kail & Cavenaugh, 2014; Rathus, 2014a). Bjorklund and Blasi (2014) explain:
Women who experience high levels of stress during pregnancy are more apt to have premature births and low-weight babies (Mulder [et al.], 2002). It is important to note that stress is not some phantom effect but quite real in its physical effects; it causes decreased nutrients and oxygen to the fetus and weakens the mother’s immune system, making the fetus more vulnerable as well. Stress in the mother can cause hormone imbalances in the placenta. In addition, women with high levels of stress are more apt to engage in behaviors that are harmful to the fetus, such as tobacco and alcohol use. (pp. 108–109)
Other FactorsOther factors have been found to affect prenatal and postnatal development. For example, lower income level and socioeconomic class can pose health risks to any mother and her fetus (Newman & Newman, 2015). Illness during pregnancy may damage the developing fetus. Rubella (German measles) can cause physical or mental disabilities in the fetus if a woman contracts it during the first three months of pregnancy (Yarber & Sayad, 2016). Prevention of rubella is possible by vaccination; however, this should not be done during pregnancy because it can harm the fetus.
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) may also be transmitted from mother to newborn in the womb, during birth, or afterward. Pregnant women should be tested for “chlamydia, gonorrhea, hepa-titis B, HIV, and syphilis” (described in Chapter 6;
Yarber & Sayad, 2016, p. 371). Transmission can often be prevented or infants treated successfully. For example, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), which is transmitted by the human immu-nodeficiency virus (HIV), can infect a fetus through the placenta; it can also infect an infant at birth if there is contact with the mother’s blood, or through breast milk. However, administration of certain drugs, such as azidothymidine (AZT), to the mother during pregnancy and to the infant after birth, in addition to performing a cesarean section (surgical removal of the infant from the womb), has radically decreased mother-to-infant HIV transmission rates in the United States (Santrock, 2016).
Prenatal AssessmentTests are available to determine whether a develop-ing fetus has any of a variety of defects. These tests include ultrasound sonography, fetal MRI, amniocen-tesis, chorionic villus sampling, and maternal blood tests.
“The development of brain imaging techniques has led to increasing use of fetal MRI to diagnose fetal malformations” (Schmid et al., 2011). “MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) uses a powerful mag-net and radio images to generate detailed images of the body’s organs and structures” (Santrock, 2016, p. 61). Ultrasound sonography is generally the first and much more common option for fetal screening because it is cost effective and safe. However, when a clearer image or more information is required to provide an accurate diagnosis and effective treat-ment planning, an MRI can be used. Frequently, ultrasound sonography will identify a potential ab-normality and a subsequent MRI will offer a more comprehensive, clearer picture of what’s involved (Mangione et al., 2011). “Among the fetal malfor-mations that fetal MRI may be able to detect bet-ter than ultrasound sonography are certain central nervous system, chest, gastrointestinal, genital/ urinary, and placental abnormalities” (Nemec et al., 2011; Triulzi, Managaro, & Volpe, 2011; Amini, Wikstrom, Ahlstrom, & Axelsson, 2011; Santrock, 2016, p. 61).
Amniocentesis involves the insertion of a needle through the abdominal wall and into the uterus to obtain amniotic fluid for determination of fetal gen-der or chromosomal abnormalities. The amniotic fluid contains fetal cells that can be analyzed for a
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 5 3
variety of birth defects including Down syndrome, muscular dystrophy,2 and spina bifida.3 The gender of the fetus can also be determined. Amniocentesis is recommended if a woman has had a baby with a birth defect, may be a genetic carrier of such a defect, or is over age 35. A disadvantage of amniocentesis is that the test is usually performed about the 16th or 17th week of pregnancy (Charlesworth, 2014). Results are available in about 2 weeks after that (Santrock, 2016). If a serious problem is discovered, people don’t have much time to decide whether to terminate the pregnancy. Another danger is a small risk of miscarriage (Rathus, 2014a; Santrock, 2016).
Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) is another method of diagnosing defects in a developing fe-tus. It involves the insertion of a thin plastic tube through the vagina or a needle through the abdomen into the uterus. A sample of the chorionic villi (tiny fingerlike projections on the membrane that sur-rounds the fetus) is taken for analysis of potential
2Muscular dystrophy is a group of hereditary diseases characterized by progressive wasting of muscles.3Spina bifida is a condition in which the spinal column has not been fused shut, and consequently some nerves remain exposed.
genetic irregularities (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 2014). It can be performed between the 10th and 12th weeks of pregnancy, with results received within about two weeks (NIH, 2014). An advan-tage of CVS is that it can be done earlier in the pregnancy than amniocentesis. Couples may have a different perspective on whether to abort or keep a defective fetus at this early stage of the pregnancy. A disadvantage of CVS, as with amniocentesis, is an increased risk of miscarriage (Charlesworth, 2014; NIH, 2014; Rathus, 2014a).
Maternal blood tests done between the 16th and 18th weeks of gestation can detect a variety of con-ditions (Santrock, 2016). For instance, the amount of a substance called alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) can be measured. High levels of AFP forewarn about abnormalities of the brain and spinal cord. Testing AFP levels can also detect Down syndrome. Ultra-sound sonography or amniocentesis can then be used to verify the presence of such congenital conditions.
In addition to a pregnant woman’s behavior and condition, numerous other variables in the macro en-vironment and in a woman’s personal situation also directly affect the fetal condition. Highlight 2.1 dis-cusses how social workers can help pregnant women access and maximize the use of prenatal care.
A physician and pregnant mother examine an ultrasound of the fetus.
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5 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Problem PregnanciesIn addition to factors that can affect virtually any pregnancy, other problems can develop under cer-tain circumstances. These problems include ectopic pregnancies, toxemia, and Rh incompatibility. Spon-taneous abortions also happen periodically.
Ectopic PregnancyWhen a fertilized egg begins to develop somewhere other than in the uterus, it is called an ectopic preg-nancy or tubal pregnancy. In most cases, the egg be-comes implanted in the fallopian tube. Much more rarely, the egg is implanted outside the uterus some-where in the abdomen.
Ectopic pregnancies most often occur because of a blockage in the fallopian tube. The current rate of ectopic pregnancy has increased dramatically from what it was 30 years ago (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). This may be attributed partially to increasing rates of STIs that result in scar tissue (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Others have hypothesized that this increase in ectopic pregnancies may be due to the increased use
of fertility drugs and escalating external stresses in the environment (Kelly, 2008).
Ectopic pregnancies in the fallopian tubes “may spontaneously abort and be released into the ab-dominal cavity, or the embryo and placenta may continue to expand, stretching the tube until it rup-tures” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017, p. 140). In the latter case, surgical removal is necessary to save the mother’s life.
ToxemiaToxemia (also called preeclampsia) is an abnormal condition involving a form of blood poisoning. Car-roll (2013b) explains:
In the last 2 to 3 months of pregnancy, 6% to 7% of women experience toxemia . . . or preeclampsia. Symptoms include rapid weight gain, fluid retention, an increase in blood pressure [hypertension], and protein in the urine. If toxemia is allowed to progress, it can result in eclampsia, which involves convulsions, coma, and in approximately 15% of cases, death. . . . Overall, [African American] . . .
HIGHLIGHT 2.1
Social Workers can assist Women in getting prenatal care: implications for practicePrenatal care is considered vital “because it provides social workers and other health professionals with opportunities to identify pregnant women who are at risk of premature or low-weight births, and to deliver the medical, nutritional, educational, or psychosocial interventions that can promote positive pregnancy outcomes” (Perloff and Jeffee, 1999, p. 117). Early prenatal care is especially significant because of the developing fetus’s vulnerability. It is important not to assume that all women’s knowledge about prenatal care and easy access to such care is equal.
Barriers to obtaining prenatal care may include a number of factors. Women may be struggling with numerous other life issues (e.g., poverty, stress, and demands on their time for other things). Clinics and services may not be readily available and easy for them to reach. Pregnant women may experience difficulties in getting transportation for services or be struggling with other work and child-care demands. They may distrust the health-care system generally. They may have had previous bad experiences with respect to other health-care issues. They may have faced long waiting periods, crowded conditions, and inconvenient hours while trying to get services (Sable & Kelly, 2008).
There are several implications for social work practice. First, workers can help women navigate a complex health-care system, making certain they have ready access to available insurance and Medicaid payments. Second, practitioners can advocate with clinics to improve their internal environments. Providing child care, magazines, comfortable furniture, and refreshments can significantly improve the clinic experience. Third, workers can assist pregnant women “in gaining access to clinic resources (for example, appointments, laboratory tests, and educational seminars) through regular, ongoing contact with clients” (Cook, Selig, Wedge, & Baube, 1999, p. 136). Fourth, practitioners can “develop innovative service delivery models,” including screening women during their initial visit to identify those at greatest risk, mailing or calling reminders of clinic appointments, and participating in community outreach (p. 136). Outreach might entail conducting door-to-door case-finding of pregnant women to expedite early initiation of prenatal care. This could involve sharing information about risks posed without care, benefits of care, and the availability of services.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 55
women are at higher risk for eclampsia than White or Hispanic women . . . (p. 319; emphasis in original)
Rh IncompatibilityPeople’s red blood cells differ in their surface structures and can be classified in different ways (Santrock, 2016). One way of distinguishing blood type involves categorizing it as either A, B, O, or AB. Another way to differentiate blood cells involves the Rh factor, which is positive if the red blood cells carry the marker or negative if they don’t (Santrock, 2016). If the mother has Rh-negative blood and the father has Rh-positive blood, the fetus may also have Rh-positive blood. This results in Rh incompatibility between the mother’s and fetus’s blood, and the mother’s body forms antibodies in defense against the fetus’s incompatible blood. Problem pregnan-cies and a range of defects in the fetus may result. Problems are less likely to occur in the first preg-nancy than in later ones, because antibodies have not yet had the chance to form. The consequence to an affected fetus can be intellectual disability,4 anemia, or death.
Fortunately, Rh incompatibility can be dealt with successfully. The mother is injected with a serum, RhoGAM, that prevents the development of future Rh-negative sensitivity. This must be administered
4Note that here we use the term intellectual disability to refer to the condition formerly referred to as mental retardation (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2009). This is a condition in which a person has intellectual functioning that is significantly below average and has accompanying deficits in adaptive functioning, both of which occur before age 18. The term intellectual disability carries a less negative connotation than mental retardation.
within 72 hours after the first child’s birth or after a first abortion. In those cases where Rh sensitivity already exists, the newborn infant or even the fetus within the uterus can be given a blood transfusion.
Spontaneous AbortionA spontaneous abortion or miscarriage is the termi-nation of a pregnancy due to natural causes before the fetus is capable of surviving on its own. About 20 to 25 percent of all diagnosed pregnancies result in a spontaneous abortion; however, about 50 per-cent of non-diagnosed pregnancies are terminated by a spontaneous abortion (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Thus, a woman may not even be aware of the pregnancy when the miscarriage occurs. Sometimes it is perceived as an extremely heavy menstrual pe-riod. The vast majority of miscarriages occur within the first trimester, with only a small minority occur-ring during the second or third trimester.
Most frequently, spontaneous abortions occur as a result of a defective fetus or some physical problem of the expectant mother. The body for some reason knows that the fetus is defective or that conditions are not right, and expels the fetus. Maternal prob-lems may include a uterus that is “too small, too weak, or abnormally shaped, . . . maternal stress, nu-tritional deficiencies, excessive vitamin A, drug ex-posure, or pelvic infection” (Carroll, 2013b, p. 318). Some evidence indicates that faulty sperm may also be to blame (Carrell et al., 2003).
The Birth ProcessThe birth process involves three stages: early labor and active labor, the birth of the baby, and delivery of the placenta.
Problem Pregnancies
Ectopic pregnancy: the circumstance when a fertilized egg becomes implanted and begins to develop somewhere other than the uterus (usually in a fallopian tube).
Toxemia: a pregnant woman’s abnormal condition involving a form of blood poisoning that results in rapid weight gain, fluid retention, hypertension, and protein in the urine.
Rh incompatibility: the condition when a mother and fetus have opposite Rh factors (positive versus negative), resulting in the mother’s blood forming antibodies against the fetus’s incompatible blood.
Spontaneous abortion: the termination of a pregnancy due to natural causes before the fetus is capable of surviving on its own.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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5 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
There are three phases of the first stage of labor: early labor, active labor, and the transition phase. Early labor is the longest phase, lasting from 8 to 12 hours (American Pregnancy Association, 2015). Contractions may come every 5–30 minutes, lasting about 30–45 seconds each time (American Preg-nancy Association, 2015). As the woman moves through early labor, contractions will increase in frequency and duration. During early labor, the cer-vix will begin to dilate and contractions start. The woman may experience a bloody mucus discharge (the mucus plug that has been sealing the opening of the uterus is discharged) and lower back pain that will not go away (back labor); and her “water” (am-niotic sac) may break (American Pregnancy Associa-tion, 2015).
For women who have health complications, such as hypertension or preeclampsia, a baby whose health may be in danger (lack of oxygen), or whose amniotic sac has ruptured but whose labor has not started, labor may be induced. Labor may be in-duced by starting medications, such as oxytocin and prostaglandin; by artificially rupturing the amniotic sac for those who have not experienced this yet; or by nipple stimulation to increase oxytocin production, which may trigger labor (American Pregnancy Asso-ciation, 2015). More and more women are choosing to induce labor as a means of “scheduling” their pregnancies; however, doctors encourage women to keep the baby in the uterus as long as medically possible.
In addition, some women experience Braxton Hicks contractions during early labor, referred to as “false labor.” This occurs when the uterus tightens for a period of 30 seconds to 2 minutes. Unlike true labor, Braxton Hicks contractions do not grow lon-ger, stronger, or closer together. It is important for a woman to talk to her doctor about her contractions to verify the type of contractions she is experiencing.
The second phase of early labor, active labor, lasts from 3–5 hours, during which time contractions feel stronger and last longer. It is important that the woman head to the hospital or contact the midwife during this process if she has not done so already.
Local anesthesia or an epidural (spinal anesthesia) may also be given to aid in reducing any pain dur-ing the labor process. Typically, women make a plan about having a baby naturally (without medications) or with anesthesia prior to going into labor; how-ever, it is not uncommon for a woman to change her
mind about the use or non-use of an anesthesia once labor has begun. During the final phase, the transi-tion, the cervix will dilate to 8–10 cm. This tends to be the hardest phase, but lasts the shortest amount of time (from 30 minutes to 2 hours). Contrac-tions are long, strong, and intense (occurring every 30 seconds to 2 minutes and lasting about 60–90 sec-onds) (American Pregnancy Association, 2015). In addition, the woman might experience nausea, hot flashes, or chills, and have a strong urge to push. During the second stage of transition, the birth of the baby occurs. The second stage can last from 20 minutes to 2 hours (American Pregnancy Associa-tion, 2015). The woman will be encouraged to push between contractions to help the baby move through the birth canal. The cervix is fully dilated, allowing the baby to move through the vagina. The baby’s head will eventually appear, called “crowning,” at which time the woman is told not to push any longer.
After the baby completely emerges, the umbilical cord, which still attaches the baby to its mother, is clamped and severed about three inches from the ba-by’s body. Because there are no nerve endings in the cord, this does not hurt. The small section of cord remaining on the infant gradually dries up and sim-ply falls off.
At times, an episiotomy (making an incision in the perineum, away from the vagina) might be needed to help deliver the baby. This may occur when the baby’s head is too large for the vaginal opening, the baby is in distress, the perineum has not stretched enough, the baby is in a breech position, or the mother is unable to control her pushing (American Pregnancy Association, 2015). It is important to note that episiotomy rates are on the decline (American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2016). The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that physicians avoid performing routine episiotomies, using them only when needed for safety reasons (American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2016).
The last stage of labor, the afterbirth, involves the body contracting in order to remove the pla-centa from the uterine wall. This can take from 5 to 30 minutes (American Pregnancy Association, 2015).
Birth PositionsThe majority of babies are born with their heads emerging first. Referred to as a vertex presentation, this is considered the normal birth position and
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 57
most often requires no assistance with instruments. Figure 2.1 depicts various birth positions.
In 1 in 25 deliveries, babies are born in a breech presentation (Santrock, 2016, p. 101). Here, the but-tocks and feet appear first and the head last as the baby is born. This type of birth may merit more care-ful attention. Often a cesarean section is performed (Santrock, 2016). A cesarean section, or C-section, is a surgical procedure in which the baby is removed by making an incision in the abdomen through the uterus. Cesarean sections account for over 32 per-cent of all births in the United States (CDC, 2015).
Note that more cesarean sections are carried out in the United States than in any other nation (Santrock, 2013). Cesarean sections are necessary when the baby is in a difficult prenatal position, when the baby’s head is too large to maneuver out of the uterus and vagina, when fetal distress is detected, or
when the labor has been extremely long and exhaust-ing. Today it is usually safe with only minimal risks to the mother or infant. The mother’s recovery, how-ever, will be longer because the incisions must heal.
A common recommendation following a cesar-ean delivery is that all future deliveries be done via a cesarean delivery. Despite this, many women whose first child was born through a cesarean birth want to explore a VBAC (vaginal birth after cesarean). Physicians are concerned about risks associated with VBAC procedures, but due to recent studies showing risks being low, it has been determined that a trial of labor can be attempted for most women (Papalia & Martorell, 2015).
Finally, about 1 percent of babies are born with a transverse presentation (Dacey, Travers, & Fiore, 2009). Here the baby lies crossways in the uterus. During birth, a hand or arm usually emerges first in the vagina. As such positions also merit special attention, a cesarean section is typically performed (Santrock, 2016).
In the United States, 98.8 percent of all births occur in hospital settings, and a doctor is usually present (Martin et al., 2012). However, it’s quite a different scene throughout much of the world, where home births and midwifery (the practice of hav-ing a person who is not a physician assist a mother in childbirth) are much more common. Although midwives are present for only 8.1 percent of births in the United States (American College of Nurse-Midwives, 2012), this reflects a significant increase from the less than 1 percent evident in 1975 (Martin et al., 2005).
Families also have the option of hiring a doula. A doula is a hired, trained professional who pro-vides emotional and physical support to a woman and her partner during her entire pregnancy, from pregnancy to the postpartum period. A doula’s main role is to provide support during the labor and deliv-ery; however, it is important to note that a doula is not a medical professional. Research has shown that support from a doula might be associated with de-creased use of pain medication, decreased length of labor, and a decrease in negative childbirth experi-ences during the labor process (MFMER, 2016).
Natural ChildbirthIn natural childbirth, the emphasis is on education for the parents, especially the mother. The intent is to maximize her understanding of the process
The birth process is an amazing experience.
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58 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and to minimize her fear of the unknown. Natural childbirth also emphasizes relaxation techniques. Mothers are encouraged to tune in to their normal body processes and learn to consciously relax when under stress. They are taught to breathe correctly and to facilitate the birth process by bearing down in an appropriate manner. The Lamaze method is currently popular in the United States, although other methods are also available. Most “emphasize education, relaxation and breathing exercises, and support” in addition to the partner’s role as a labor coach (Santrock, 2016, p. 107).
Many women prefer natural childbirth because it allows them to experience and enjoy the birth to the
greatest extent possible. When done correctly, pain is minimized. Anesthetics are usually avoided so that maximum feeling can be attained. It allows the mother to remain conscious throughout the birth process.
Newborn AssessmentBirth is a traumatic process that is experienced more easily by some newborns, often referred to as neo-nates, and with more difficulty by others. Evalua-tion scales have been developed to assess an infant’s condition at birth. The sooner any problems can be attended to, the greater the chance of having the in-fant be normal and healthy. Two such scales are the Apgar and the Brazelton.
Vertex presentation Transverse presentation
Breech presentation Breech presentation
FIGURE 2.1 Forms of Birth Presentation
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 59
In 1953, Virginia Apgar developed a scale, com-monly known as the Apgar scale, that assesses the following five variables (note the acronym):
1. Appearance: Skin color (ranging from bluish-gray to good color everywhere).
2. Pulse: Heart rate (ranging from no heart rate to at least 100 beats per minute).
3. Grimace: Reflex response (ranging from no re-sponse while the airways are being suctioned to active grimacing, pulling away, and coughing).
4. Activity: Muscle tone (ranging from limpness to active motion).
5. Respiration: Breathing (ranging from not breath-ing to nor mal breathing and strong crying) (Apgar, 1958; Berk, 2013; Steinberg et al., 2011a).
Each of these five variables is given a score of 0 to 2. Evaluation of these signs usually occurs twice—at one minute and at five minutes after birth. A maximum total score of 10 is possible. Scores of 7 through 10 indicate a normal, healthy infant. Scores of 4 through 6 suggest that some caution be taken and that the infant be carefully observed. Scores of 4 or below warn that problems are apparent. In these cases, the infant needs immediate emergency care.
A second scale used to assess the health of a new-born infant is the Brazelton (1973) Neonatal Behav-ioral Assessment Scale. Whereas the Apgar scale addresses the gross or basic condition of an infant immediately after birth, the Brazelton assesses more extensively the functioning of the central nervous sys-tem and behavioral responses of a newborn. Usually administered 24 to 36 hours after birth, the scale fo-cuses on finer distinctions of behavior. It includes a range of 28 behavioral items and 18 reflex items that evaluate such dimensions as motor system control, ac-tivity level, sucking reflex, responsiveness while awake or sleeping, and attentiveness to the external envi-ronment (Brazelton Institute, 2005). Extremely low scores can indicate brain damage or a brain condition that, given time, may eventually heal (Santrock, 2013).
Birth DefectsBirth defects refer to any kind of disfigurement or abnormality present at birth. Birth defects are much more likely to characterize fetuses that are miscar-ried. It should be noted that the term “birth defects” carries negative undertones, and that the term does not reflect the many abilities and talents of those af-fected by these problems. A consensus has not been
reached as to a more appropriate term. Miscarriage provides a means for the body to prevent seriously impaired or abnormal births. The specific types of birth defects are probably infinite; however, some tend to occur with greater frequency.
Down syndrome is a disorder involving an ex-tra chromosome that results in various degrees of intellectual disability. Accompanying physical char-acteristics include a broad, short skull; widely spaced eyes with an extra fold of skin over the eyelids; a round, flattened face; a flattened nose; a protrud-ing tongue; shortened limbs; and defective heart, eyes, and ears. We’ve already noted that a woman’s chances of bearing a child with Down syndrome in-crease significantly with her age.
Spina bifida is a condition in which the spinal column has not fused shut and consequently some nerves remain exposed. Surgery immediately after birth closes the spinal column. Muscle weakness or paralysis and difficulties with bladder and bowel control often accompany tins condition. Frequently occurring along with spina bifida is hydrocephalus, in which an abnormal amount of spinal fluid ac-cumulates in the skull, possibly resulting in skull enlargement and brain atrophy. Spina bifida has a prevalence rate of 3.49 per 10,000 births (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2011).
Low-Birth-Weight and Preterm InfantsLow birth weight and preterm status (prematurity) pose grave problems for newborns. Low birth weight is defined as 5 pounds 8 ounces or less; “about 1 in every 12 babies in the United States is born with low birth weight” (March of Dimes, 2014). Primary causes for low birth weight are premature birth and fetal growth restriction (i.e., being small for gesta-tional age due to any of a number of reasons); other maternal factors increasing risk for low birth weight include chronic health conditions (such as those in-volving high blood pressure, diabetes, or lung and kidney problems), some infections (especially those involving the uterus), troubles with the placenta (re-sulting in inadequate nutrients provided to the fe-tus), inadequate weight gain during pregnancy, and the pregnant mother’s behavior and experience (e.g., smoking, drinking, poor nutrition, chronic maternal health problems, and lack of access to adequate re-sources) (March of Dimes, 2014).
Preterm or premature babies, born before the 37th week of gestation, often experience low birth weight.
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6 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
A full-term pregnancy is considered to last be-tween 37 and 42 weeks, with most babies being born at about 40 weeks; about 1 in 10 of all babies born in the United States are preterm (CDC, 2015). Prema-ture infants tend to weigh less because they haven’t had the necessary time to develop. Risk factors for premature birth include having born a prior prema-ture baby, being part of a multiple birth scenario, and uterine or cervical abnormalities (CDC, 2013d). Other risk factors resemble those involved in infants having a low birth weight (CDC, 2015).
Both low birth weight and preterm status place infants at higher risk for a range of problems (CDC, 2013d; March of Dimes, 2014). However, note that most low-birth-weight babies eventually function normally (Santrock, 2013; Wilson-Costello et al., 2007; Xiong et al., 2007). The earlier infants are born and the lower their birth weight, the greater their potential for developmental delays and long-term disabilities (CDC, 2015; Santrock, 2016).
Due to modern technology and care, low-birth-weight babies are much more likely to survive than they were in the past. Yet, early on, they are also more likely to experience problems involving breath-ing, bleeding, heart problems, intestinal difficul-ties, and potential loss of vision (March of Dimes,
2014). There is some indication that by school age, low-birth-weight children are more likely to experience learning and attention difficulties5 or breathing problems such as asthma (Anderson et al., 2011; Berk, 2013; Santo, Portuguez, & Nunes, 2009; Santrock, 2016). Increasing evidence indicates that low-birth-weight infants have greater difficul-ties socializing as adults (Berk, 2013; Moster, Lie, & Markestad, 2008). Be aware, however, that it is dif-ficult to distinguish the direct effects of low birth weight from the effects of other variables such as an impoverished or abusive environment. Highlight 2.2 addresses the circumstances of low-birth-weight in-fants internationally.
Social work roles that are used to help pregnant women bear healthy infants might include that of a broker to help women get the resources they need. These resources include access to good nutrition and prenatal care. If such resources are unavailable,
5One type of attention difficulty involves attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). This is a syndrome of learning and behavioral problems beginning in childhood that is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention, excessive physical movement, and impulsivity that appears in at least two settings. ADHD is discussed further in Chapter 3.
HIGHLIGHT 2.2
an international perspective on low-Birth-Weight infantsSantrock (2013) reflects on the circumstances of low-birth-weight infants in various countries around the world:
The incidence of low birth weight varies considerably from country to country. In some countries, such as India and Sudan, where poverty is rampant and the health and nutrition of mothers are poor, the percentage of low birth weight babies reaches as high as 31 percent . . . In the United States, there has been an increase in low birth weight infants in the last two decades. The U.S. low birth weight rate of 8.2 percent in 2007 is considerably higher than that of many other developed countries (Hamilton et al., 2009). For example, only 4 percent of infants born in Sweden, Finland, Norway, and Korea are low birth weight, and only 5 percent of those born in New Zealand, Australia, and France are low birth weight.
The causes of low birth weight also vary (Mortensen et al., 2009). In the developing world low birth weight
stems mainly from the mother’s poor health and nutrition (Christian, 2009). For example, diarrhea and malaria, which are common in developing countries, can impair fetal growth if the mother becomes affected while she is pregnant. In developed countries, cigarette smoking dining pregnancy is the leading cause of low birth weight (Fertig, 2010). In both developed and developing countries, adolescents who give birth when their bodies are not fully matured are at risk of having low birth weight babies (Malamitsi-Puchner & Boutsikou, 2006). In the United States, the increase in the number of low birth weight infants is due to such factors as the use of drugs, poor nutrition, multiple births, reproductive technologies, and improved technology and prenatal care, resulting in a higher survival rate of high-risk babies (Chen et al., 2007). Nonetheless, poverty still is a major factor in preterm birth in the United States. . . (p. 121)
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 61
especially to poor women, social workers might need to advocate on the women’s behalf. Funding sources and services might need to be developed.
Treatment for low-birth-weight babies includes immediate medical attention to meet their special needs and provision of educational and counseling support. Group counseling for parents and weekly home visits to teach parents how to care for their children, play with them, and provide stimulation to develop cognitive, verbal, and social skills also ap-pear to be helpful.
Early Functioning of the NeonateThe average full-ter m newborn weighs about 7½ pounds and is approximately 20 inches long (most weigh from 5½ to 10 pounds, and measure from 18 to 22 inches long). Girls tend to weigh a bit less and to be shorter than boys. Many parents may be surprised at the sight of their newborn, who does not resemble the cute, pudgy, smiling, gurgling baby typically shown in television commercials. Rather, the baby is probably tiny and wrinkled with a dispro-portionate body and squinting eyes. Newborns need time to adjust to the shock of being born. Mean-while, they continue to achieve various milestones in development. They gain more and more control over their muscles and are increasingly better able to think and respond.
First, newborn babies generally spend much time sleeping, although the time spent decreases as the baby grows older. Second, babies tend to respond in very generalized ways. They cannot make clear dis-tinctions among various types of stimuli, nor can they control their reactions in a precise manner. Any type of stimulation tends to produce a generalized flurry of movement throughout the entire body.
Several reflexes that characterize newborns should be present in normal neonates. First, there is the sucking reflex. This obviously facilitates babies’ ability to take in food. Related to this is a second ba-sic reflex, rooting. Normal babies will automatically move their heads and begin a sucking motion with their mouths whenever touched even lightly on the lips or cheeks beside the lips. The rooting reflex re-fers to this automatic movement toward a stimulus.
A third important reflex is the Moro reflex, or startle reflex. Whenever infants hear a sudden loud noise, they automatically react by extending their arms and legs, spreading their fingers, and throwing
their heads back. The purpose of this reflex is un-known, and it seems to disappear after a few months of life.
Five additional reflexes are the stepping reflex, the grasping reflex, the Babinski reflex, the swimming re-flex, and the tonic neck reflex. The stepping reflex in-volves infants’ natural tendency to lift a leg when held in an upright position with feet barely touching a surface. In a way, it resembles the beginning motions involved in walking. The grasping reflex refers to a newborn’s tendency to grasp and hold objects such as sticks or fingers when placed in the palms of their hands. The Babinski reflex involves the stretching, fanning movement of the toes whenever the infant is stroked on the bottom of the foot. The swimming reflex involves infants making swimming motions when they’re placed face down in water. Finally, the tonic neck reflex is the infant’s turning of the head to one side when laid down on its back, the extension of the arm and leg on the side it’s facing, and the flexing of the opposite limbs. Sometimes, this is referred to as the “fencer” pose as it resembles just that.
LO 2 Explain Typical Developmental Milestones for Infants and ChildrenAs infants grow and develop, their growth follows certain patterns and principles. At each stage of de-velopment, people are physically and mentally ca-pable of performing certain types of tasks. Human development is the continuous process of growth and change, involving physical, mental, emotional, and social characteristics, that occurs over a lifespan. Human development is predictable in that the same basic changes occur sequentially for everyone. How-ever, enough variation exists to produce individuals with unique attributes and experiences.
Four major concepts are involved in understand-ing the process of human development: (1) growth as a continuous, orderly process, (2) specific charac-teristics of different age levels, (3) the importance of individual differences, and (4) the effects of both he-redity and the social environment.
Growth as a Continuous, Orderly ProcessPeople progress through a continuous, orderly se-quence of growth and change as they pass from one
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62 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
age level to another. This has various implications. For one thing, growth is continuous and progres-sive. People are continually changing as they get older. For another thing, the process is relatively pre-dictable and follows a distinct order. For example, an infant must learn how to stand up before learning how to run. All people tend to follow the same or-der in terms of their development. For instance, all babies must learn how to formulate verbal sounds before learning how to speak in complete sentences.
Several subprinciples relate to the idea that de-velopment is an orderly process. One is that growth always follows a pattern from simpler and more ba-sic to more involved and complex. Simple tasks must be mastered before more complicated ones can be undertaken.
Another subprinciple is that aspects of develop-ment progress from being more general to being more specific. Things become increasingly more dif-ferentiated. For example, infants initially begin to distinguish between human faces and other objects such as balloons. This is a general developmental response. Later they begin to recognize not only the human face, but also the specific faces of their parents. Eventually, as they grow older they can rec-ognize the faces of Uncle Horace, Mr. Schmidt the grocer, and then-best friend Joey. Their recognition ability has progressed from being very basic to being very specific.
Two other subprinciples involve cephalocaudal de-velopment and proximodistal development. Cephalo-caudal development refers to development from the head to the toes. Infants begin to learn how to use the parts of the upper body such as the head and arms before their legs. Proximodistal development refers to the tendency to develop aspects of the body trunk first and then later master manipulation of the body extremities (e.g., first the arms and then the hands).
Specific Characteristics of Different Age LevelsA second basic developmental principle is that each age period tends to have specific characteristics. During each stage of life, from infancy throughout adulthood, “typical” people are generally capable of performing certain tasks. Capabilities tend to be similar for all people within any particular age cat-egory. Developmental guidelines provide a very gen-eral means for determining whether an individual is progressing and developing typically.
Individual DifferencesThe third basic principle of development emphasizes that people have individual differences. Although people tend to develop certain capacities in a speci-fied order, the ages at which particular individuals master certain skills may show a wide variation. Some people may progress through certain stages faster. Others will take more time to master the same physical and mental skills. Variation may occur in the same individual from one stage to the next. The specific developmental tasks and skills that charac-terize each particular age level may be considered an average of what is usually accomplished during that level. Any average may reflect a wide variation. People may still be “typical” if they fall at one of the extremes that make up the average.
The Nature-Nurture ControversyA fourth principle involved in understanding human development is that both heredity and the surround-ing environment affect development. Individual differences, to some extent, may be influenced by en-vironmental factors. People are endowed with some innate ability and potential. In addition, the imping-ing environment acts to shape, enhance, or limit that ability.
For example, take a baby who is born with the po-tential to grow and develop into a typical adult, both physically and intellectually. Nature provides the in-dividual baby with some prospective potential. How-ever, if the baby happens to be living in a developing country during a famine, the environment or nurture may have drastic effects on the baby’s development. Serious lack of nourishment limits the baby’s even-tual physical and mental potential.
Given the complicated composition of human beings, the exact relationship between hereditary potential and environmental effects is unclear. It is impossible to quantify how much the environ-ment affects development compared to how much development is affected by heredity. This is often referred to as the nature-nurture controversy. Theo-rists assume stands at both extremes. Some state that nature’s heredity is the most important. Others hy-pothesize that the environment imposes the crucial influence.
You might consider that each individual has a potential that is to some extent determined by in-heritance. However, this potential is maximized or
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 6 3
minimized by what happens to people in their par-ticular environments.
Former president Ronald Reagan maintained only a C average in college. Yet he was able to attain the most powerful position in the United States. It is difficult to determine how much of his success was due to innate ability and how much to situations and opportunities he encountered in his environment.
Our approach is that a person develops as the re-sult of a multitude of factors including those that are inherited and those that are environmental.
Relevance to Social WorkKnowledge of human development and develop-mental milestones can be directly applied to social work practice. Assessment is a basic fact of inter-vention throughout the lifespan. In order to assess human needs and human behavior accurately, the social worker must know what is considered normal or appropriate. He or she must decide when inter-vention is necessary and when it is not. Comparing observed behavior with what is considered normal behavior provides a guideline for these decisions.
This book will address issues in human develop-ment throughout the lifespan. A basic understanding of every age level is important for generalist practice. However, an understanding of the normal develop-mental milestones for young children is especially critical. Early assessment of potential developmental lags or problems allows for maximum alleviation or prevention of future difficulties. For example, early diagnosis of a speech problem will alert parents and teachers to provide special remedial help for a child. The child will then have a better chance to make progress and possibly even catch up with peers.
Profiles of Typical Development for Children Ages 4 Months to 11 YearsChildren progress through an organized sequence of behavior patterns as they mature. Research has estab-lished indicators of normality such as when children typically say their first word, run adeptly, or throw a ball overhand. These milestones reflect only an av-erage indication of typical accomplishments. Chil-dren need not follow this profile to the letter. Typical
human development provides for much individual variation. Parents do not need to be concerned if their child cannot yet stand alone at 13 months in-stead of the average 12 months. However, serious lags in development or those that continue to in-crease in severity should be attended to. This list can act as a screening guide to determine whether a child might need more extensive evaluation.
Each age profile is divided into five assessment categories. They include motor or physical behavior, play activities, adaptive behavior that involves taking care of self, social responses, and language develop-ment. All five topics are addressed together at each developmental age level in order to provide a more complete assessment profile.
Occasionally, case vignettes are presented that describe children of various ages. Evaluate to what extent each of these children fits the developmental profile.
Age 4 MonthsMotor: Four-month-old infants typically can bal-ance their heads at a 90-degree angle. They can also lift their heads and chests when placed on their stomachs in a prone position. They begin to discover themselves. They frequently watch their hands, keep their fingers busy, and place objects in their mouths.
Adaptive: Infants are able to recognize their bot-tles. The sight of a bottle often stimulates bodily ac-tivity. Sometimes teething begins tins early, although the average age is closer to 6 or 7 months.
Social: These infants are able to recognize their mothers and other familiar faces. They imitate smiles and often respond to familiar people by reaching, smiling, laughing, or squirming.
Language: The 4-month-old will turn his or her head when a sound is heard. Verbalizations include gurgling, babbling, and cooing.
Age 8 MonthsMotor: Eight-month-old babies are able to sit alone without being supported. They usually are able to assist themselves into a standing position by pulling themselves up on a chair or crib. They can reach for an object and pick it up with all their fingers and a thumb. Crawling efforts have begun. These babies can usually begin creeping on all fours, displaying greater strength in one leg than the other.
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6 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Play: The baby is capable of banging two toys to-gether. Many can also pass an object from one hand to the other. These babies can imitate arm move-ments such as splashing in a tub, shaking a rattle, or crumpling paper.
Adaptive: Babies of this age can feed themselves pieces of toast or crackers. They will be able to munch instead of being limited to sucking.
Social: Babies of this age can begin imitating facial expressions and gestures. They can play pat-a-cake and peekaboo, and wave bye-bye.
Language: Babbling becomes frequent and com-plex. Most babies will be able to attempt copying the verbal sounds they hear. Many can say a few words or sounds such as mama or dada. However, they don’t yet understand the meaning of words.
Age 1 YearMotor: By age 1 year, most babies can crawl well, which makes them highly mobile. Although they usually require support to walk, they can stand alone without holding onto anything. They eagerly reach out into their environments and explore things. They can open drawers, undo latches, and pull on electri-cal cords.
Play: One-year-olds like to examine toys and objects both visually and by touching them. They
typically like to handle objects by feeling them, pok-ing them, and turning them around in their hands. Objects are frequently dropped and picked up again one time after another. Babies of this age like to put objects in and take them out of containers. Favorite toys include large balls, bottles, bright dangling toys, clothespins, and large blocks.
Adaptive: Because of their mobility, 1-year-olds need careful supervision. Because of their interest in exploration, falling down stairs, sticking forks in electric sockets, and eating dead insects are constant possibilities. Parents need to scrutinize their homes and make them as safe as possible.
Babies are able to drink from a cup. They can also run their spoon across their plate and place the spoon in their mouths. They can feed themselves with their fingers. They begin to cooperate while be-ing dressed by holding still or by extending an arm or a leg to facilitate putting the clothes on. Regular-ity of both bowel and bladder control begins.
Social: One-year-olds are becoming more aware of the reactions of those around them. They often vary their behavior in response to these reactions. They enjoy having an audience. For example, they tend to repeat behaviors that are laughed at. They also seek attention by squealing or making noises.
Language: By 1 year, babies begin to pay care-ful attention to the sounds they hear. They can
Children achieve their developmental milestones step by step.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 65
understand simple commands. For instance, on re-quest they often can hand you the appropriate toy. They begin to express choices about the type of food they will accept or about whether it is time to go to bed. They imitate sounds more frequently and can meaningfully use a few other words in addition to mama and dada.
Case Vignette A: To what extent does this child fit the developmental profile?
Wyanet, age 1 year, is able to balance her head at a 90-degree angle. She can also lift her head when placed on her stomach in a prone position. She is not yet able to sit alone. She can recognize her bot-tle and her mother. Verbalizations include gurgling, babbling, and cooing.
Age 18 MonthsMotor: By 18 months, a baby can walk. Although these children are beginning to run, their movements are still awkward and result in frequent falls. Walk-ing up stairs can be accomplished by a caregiver holding the baby’s hand. These babies can often descend stairs by themselves but only by crawling down backward or by sliding down by sitting first on one step and then another. They are also able to push large objects and pull toys.
Play: Babies of this age like to scribble with cray-ons and build with blocks. However, it is difficult for them to place even three or four blocks on top of each other. These children like to move toys and other objects from one place to another. Dolls or stuffed animals frequently are carried about as regu-lar companions. These toys are also often shown af-fection such as hugging. By 18 months, babies begin to imitate some of the simple things that adults do such as turning pages of a book.
Adaptive: Ability to feed themselves is much im-proved by age 18 months. These babies can hold their own glasses to drink from, usually using both hands. They are able to use a spoon sufficiently to feed themselves.
By this age, children can cooperate in dressing. They can unfasten zippers by themselves and remove their own socks or hats. Some regularity has also been established in toilet training. These babies often can indicate to their parents when they are wet and sometimes wake up at night in order to be changed.
Social: Children function at the solitary level of play. It is normal for them to be aware of other
children and even enjoy having them around; how-ever, they don’t play with other children.
Language: Children’s vocabularies consist of more than 3 but less than 50 words. These words usually refer to people, objects, or activities with which they are familiar. They frequently chatter using meaning-less sounds as if they were really talking like adults. They can understand language to some extent. For instance, children will often be able to respond to di-rectives or questions such as “Give Mommy a kiss,” or “Would you like a cookie?”
Case Vignette B: To what extent does this child fit the developmental profile?
Luis, age 18 months, can crawl well but is unable to stand by himself. He likes to scribble with crayons and build with blocks. However, it is difficult for him to place even three or four blocks on top of each other. He can say a few sounds, including mama and dada, but he cannot yet understand the meaning of words.
Age 2 YearsMotor: By age 2, children can walk and run quite well. They also can often master balancing briefly on one foot and throwing a ball in an overhead man-ner. They can use the stairs themselves by taking one step at a time and by placing both feet on each step. They are also capable of turning pages of a book and stringing large beads.
Play: Two-year-olds are very interested in explor-ing their world. They like to play with small objects such as toy animals and can stack up to six or seven blocks. They like to play with and push large objects such as wagons and walkers. They also enjoy explor-ing the texture and form of materials such as sand, water, and clay. Adults’ daily activities such as cook-ing, carpentry, or cleaning are frequently imitated. Two-year-olds also enjoy looking at books and can name common pictures.
Adaptive: Two-year-olds begin to be capable of listening to and following directions. They can assist in dressing rather than merely cooperating. For ex-ample, they may at least try to button their clothes, although they are unlikely to be successful. They at-tempt washing their hands. A small glass can be held and used with one hand.
They use spoons to feed themselves fairly well. Two-year-olds have usually attained daytime bowel and bladder control with only occasional accidents. Nighttime control is improving but still not complete.
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6 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Social: These children play alongside each other, but not with each other in a cooperative fashion. They are becoming more and more aware of the feelings and reactions of adults. They begin to seek adult approval for correct behavior. They also begin to show their emotions in the forms of affection, guilt, or pity. They tend to have mastered the con-cept of saying no, and use it frequently.
Language: Two-year-olds can usually put two or three words together to express an idea. For in-stance, they might say, “Daddy gone,” or “Want milk.” Their vocabulary usually includes more than 50 words. Over the next few months, new vocabulary will steadily increase into hundreds of words. They can identify common facial features such as eyes, ears, and nose. Simple directions and requests are usually understood. Although 2-year-olds cannot yet carry on conversations with other people, they frequently talk to themselves or to their toys. It’s common to hear them ask, “What’s this?” in their eagerness to learn the names of things. They also like to listen to simple stories, especially those with which they are very familiar.
Case Vignette C: To what extent does this child fit the developmental profile?
Kenji, age 2 years, can walk well but still runs with an awkward gait. He likes to play with and push large objects such as wagons and walkers. He also likes to play alongside other children but is not able to play with them in a cooperative fashion. His vocabulary includes about 25 words, but he is not yet very adept at putting two to three words together to express an idea.
Age 3 YearsMotor: At age 3, children can walk well and also run at a steady gait. They can stop quickly and turn corners without falling. They can go up and down stairs using alternating feet. They can begin to ride a tricycle. Three-year-olds participate in a lot of physi-cally active activities such as swinging, climbing, and sliding.
Play: By age 3, children begin to develop their imagination. They use books creatively such as mak-ing them into fences or streets. They like to push toys such as trains or cars in make-believe activities. When given the opportunity and interesting toys and materials, they can initiate their own play activi-ties. They also like to imitate the activities of others,
especially those of adults. They can cut with scis-sors and can make some controlled markings with crayons.
Adaptive: Three-year-olds can actively help in dressing. They can put on simple items of clothing such as pants or a sweater, although their clothes may be on backward or inside out. They begin to try buttoning and unbuttoning their own clothes. They eat well by using a spoon and have little spill-ing. They also begin to use a fork. They can get their own glass of water from a faucet and pour liquid from a small pitcher. They can wash their hands and face by themselves with minor help. By age 3, children can use the toilet by themselves, al-though they frequently ask someone to go with them. They need only minor help with wiping. Acci-dents are rare, usually happening only occasionally at night.
Social: Three-year-olds tend to pay close atten-tion to the adults around them and are eager to please. They attempt to follow directions and are re-sponsive to approval or disapproval. They also can be reasoned with at this age. By age 3, children begin to develop their capacity to relate to and communi-cate with others. They show an interest in the family and in family activities. Their play is still focused on the parallel level where their interest is concentrated primarily on their own activities. However, they are beginning to notice what other children are doing. Some cooperation is initiated in the form of taking turns or verbally settling arguments.
Language: Three-year-olds can use sentences that are longer and more complex. Plurals, personal pro-nouns such as I, and prepositions such as above or on are used appropriately. Children are able to ex-press their feelings and ideas fairly well. They are capable of relating a story. They listen fairly well and are very interested in longer, more complicated stories than they were at an earlier age. They also have mastered a substantial amount of information including their last name, their gender, and a few rhymes.
Age 4 YearsMotor: Four-year-olds tend to be very active physi-cally. They enjoy running, skipping, jumping, and performing stunts. They are capable of racing up and down stairs. Their balance is very good, and they can carry a glass of liquid without spilling it.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 67
Play: By age 4, children have become increas-ingly creative and imaginative. They like to construct things out of clay, sand, or blocks. They enjoy using costumes and other pretend materials. They can play cooperatively with other children. They can draw simple figures, although they are frequently inac-curate and without much detail. Four-year-olds can also cut or trace along a line fairly accurately.
Adaptive: Four-year-olds tend to be very asser-tive. They usually can dress themselves. They’ve mastered the use of buttons and zippers. They can put on and lace their own shoes, although they can-not yet tie them. They can wash their hands without supervision. By age 4, children demand less atten-tion while eating with their family. They can serve themselves food and eat by themselves using both spoon and fork. They can even assist in setting the table. Four-year-olds can use the bathroom by themselves, although they still alert adults of this and sometimes need assistance in wiping. They usu-ally can sleep through the night without having any accidents.
Social: Four-year-olds are less docile than 3-year-olds. They are less likely to conform, in addition to being less responsive to the pleasure or displeasure of adults. Four-year-olds are in the process of sep-arating from their parents and begin to prefer the company of other children over adults. They are of-ten social and talkative. They are very interested in the world around them and frequently ask “what,” “why,” and “how” questions.
Language: The aggressiveness manifested by 4-year-olds also appears in their language. They fre-quently brag and boast about themselves. Name call-ing is common. Their vocabulary has experienced tremendous growth; however, they have a tendency to misuse words and some difficulty with proper grammar. Four-year-olds talk a lot and like to carry on long conversations with others. Their speech is usually very understandable with only a few rem-nants of earlier, more infantile speech remaining. Their growing imagination also affects their speech. They like to tell stories and frequently mix facts with make-believe.
Case Vignette D: To what extent does this child fit the developmental profile?
Chaniqwa, age 4 years, is very active physically. She enjoys running, skipping, jumping, and per-forming stunts. She can use the bathroom by her-self. She has a substantial vocabulary, although she
has a tendency to misuse words and use improper grammar.
Age 5 YearsMotor: Five-year-olds are quieter and less active than 4-year-olds. Their activities tend to be more complicated and more directed toward achieving some goal. For example, they are more adept at climbing and at riding a tricycle. They can also use roller skates, jump rope, skip, and succeed at other such complex activities. Their ability to concentrate is also increased. The pictures they draw, although simple, are finally recognizable. Dominance of the left or right hand becomes well established.
Play: Games and play activities have become both more elaborate and competitive. Games include hide-and-seek, tag, and hopscotch. Team playing be-gins. Five-year-olds enjoy pretend games of a more elaborate nature. They like to build houses and forts with blocks and to participate in more dramatic play such as playing house or being a space invader. Sing-ing songs, dancing, and playing DVDs are usually very enjoyable.
Adaptive: Five-year-olds can dress and undress themselves quite well. Assistance is necessary only for adjusting more complicated fasteners and tying shoes. These children can feed themselves and at-tend to their own toilet needs. They can even visit the neighborhood by themselves, needing help only in crossing streets.
Social: By age 5, children have usually learned to cooperate with others in activities and enjoy group activities. They acknowledge the rights of others and are better able to respond to adult supervision. They have become aware of rules and are interested in conforming to them. Five-year-olds also tend to enjoy family activities such as outings and trips.
Language: Language continues to develop and becomes more complex. Vocabulary continues to increase. Sentence structure becomes more compli-cated and more accurate. Five-year-olds are very interested in what words mean. They like to look at books and have people read to them. They have be-gun learning how to count and can recognize colors. Attempts at drawing numbers and letters are begun, although fine motor coordination is not yet well enough developed for great accuracy.
Case Vignette E: To what extent does this child fit the developmental profile?
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6 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Sheridan, age 5 years, can draw simple although recognizable pictures. Dominance of her left hand has become well established. She can readily dress and undress herself. She enjoys playing in groups of other children and can cooperate with them quite well. She has a vocabulary of about 50 words. She can use pronouns such as I and prepositions such as on and above appropriately. She can put two or three words together and use them appropriately, al-though she has difficulty formulating longer phrases and sentences.
Ages 6 to 8 YearsMotor: Children ages 6 to 8 years are physically in-dependent. They can run, jump, and balance well. They continue to participate in a variety of activities to help refine their coordination and motor skills. They often enjoy unusual and challenging activities, such as walking on fences, which help to develop such skills.
Play: These children participate in much ac-tive play such as kickball. They like activities such as gymnastics and enjoy trying to perform physical stunts. They also begin to develop intense interest in simple games such as marbles or tiddlywinks and collecting items. Playing with dolls is at its height.
Acting out dramatizations becomes very impor-tant; these children love to pretend they are animals, horseback riders, or jet pilots.
Adaptive: Much more self-sufficient and indepen-dent, these children can dress themselves, go to bed alone, and get up by themselves during the night to go to the bathroom. They can begin to be trusted with an allowance. They are able to go to school or to friends’ homes alone. In general, they become in-creasingly more interested in and understanding of various social situations.
Social: In view of their increasing social skills, they consider playing skills within their peer group increasingly important. They become more and more adept at social skills. Their lives begin to focus around the school and activities with friends. They are becoming more sensitive to reactions of those around them, especially those of their parents. There is some tendency to react negatively when subjected to pressure or criticism. For instance, they may sulk.
Language: The use of language continues to be-come more refined and sophisticated. Good pro-nunciation and grammar are developed according to what they’ve been taught. They are learning how to put their feelings and thoughts into words to express themselves more clearly. They begin to understand more abstract words and forms of language. For
Children ages 6 to 8 love action play. They can run, jump, and balance well.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 69
example, they may begin to understand some puns and jokes. They also begin to develop reading, writ-ing, and numerical skills.
Ages 9 to 11 YearsMotor: Children continue to refine and develop their coordination and motor skills. They experience a gradual, steady gain in body measurements and pro-portion. Manual dexterity, posture, strength, and balance improve. This period of late childhood is transitional to the major changes experienced during adolescence.
Play: This period frequently becomes the finale of the games and play of childhood. If it has not already occurred, boys and girls separate into their respective same-gender groups.
Adaptive: Children become more and more aware of themselves and the world around them. They ex-perience a gradual change from identifying primar-ily with adults to formulating their own self-identity. They become more independent. This is a period of both physical and mental growth. These children push themselves into experiencing new things and new activities. They learn to focus on detail and ac-complish increasingly difficult intellectual and aca-demic tasks.
Social: The focus of attention shifts from a fam-ily orientation to a peer orientation. They continue developing social competence. Friends become very important.
Language: A tremendous increase in vocabulary occurs. These children become adept at the use of words. They can answer questions with more depth of insight. They understand more abstract concepts and use words more precisely. They are also better able to understand and examine verbal and math-ematical relationships.
A Concluding NoteWe emphasize that individuals vary greatly in their attainment of specific developmental milestones. The developmental milestones provide a general baseline for assessment and subsequent interven-tion decisions. If a child is assessed as being grossly behind in terms of achieving normal developmen-tal milestones, then immediate intervention may be needed. On the other hand, if a child is only mildly behind his or her normal developmental profile, then
no more than close observation may be appropriate. In the event that the child continues to fall further behind, help can be sought and provided.
Significant Issues and Life EventsTwo significant issues will be discussed that relate to the decision of whether to have children. They have been selected because they affect a great number of people and because they often pose a serious crisis for the people involved. The issues are abortion and infertility.
LO 3 Examine the Abortion Controversy: Impacts of Social and Economic ForcesMany unique circumstances are involved in any un-planned pregnancy. Individuals must evaluate for themselves the potential consequences of each al-ternative and assess the positive and negative conse-quences of each.
A basic decision involved in unplanned pregnancy is whether to have the baby. If the decision is made to have the baby, and the mother is unmarried, a subset of alternatives must then be evaluated. One option is to marry the father (or to establish some other on-going relationship with him). A second alternative is for the mother to keep the baby and live as a single parent. In the past decade, the media have given in-creasing attention to fathers who seek custody. Joint custody is a viable option. Or the mother’s parents (the child’s grandparents) or other relatives could ei-ther keep the baby or assist in its care. Still another option is adoption. Each choice involves both posi-tive and negative consequences.
Abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by re-moving an embryo or fetus from the uterus before it can survive on its own outside the womb. Social workers may find themselves in the position of help-ing their clients explore abortion as one possibility open to them. Highlight 2.3 provides a case exam-ple of how one young woman struggled with her dilemma.
The concept of abortion inevitably elicits strong feelings and emotions. These feelings can be very positive or negative. People who take stands against abortion often do so on moral and ethical grounds.
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70 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
A common theme is that each unborn child has the right to life. On the opposite pole are those who feel strongly in favor of abortion. They feel that women have the right to choice over their own bodies and lives.
The issue concerning unplanned and, in this context, unwanted pregnancy provides an excel-lent example of how macro-system values affect the options available to clients. In June 1992, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that states have extensive power to restrict abortions, although they cannot
outlaw all abortions. Due to this ruling, restrictions have increased significantly. From 2011 to 2013, 205 new restrictions were enacted in the United States (Center for Reproductive Rights, 2014). If abortions are illegal or unavailable to specific groups in the population, then women’s choices about what to do are much more limited.
The abortion issue illustrates how clients func-tion within the contexts of their mezzo and macro environments. For example, perhaps a woman’s par-ents are unwilling to help her with a newborn, or
HIGHLIGHT 2.3
case example: Single and pregnantRoseanne was 21 years old and two months pregnant. She was a junior at a large midwestern state university, majoring in social work. Hank, the father, was a 26-year-old divorce she met in one of her classes. He already had a 4-year-old son named Ronnie.
Roseanne was filled with ambivalent feelings. She had always pictured herself as being a mother someday—but not now. She felt she loved Hank but had many reservations about how he felt in return. She’d been seeing him once or twice a week for the past few months. Hank didn’t really take her out much, and she suspected that he was also dating other women. He had even asked her to babysit for Ronnie while he went out with someone else.
That was another thing—Ronnie. She felt Ronnie hated her. He would snarl whenever she came over and make nasty, cutting remarks. Maybe he was jealous that his father was giving Roseanne attention.
The pregnancy was an accident. She simply didn’t think anything would happen. She knew better now that it was too late. Hank had never made any commitment to her. In some ways she felt he was a creep, but at least he was honest. The fact was that he just didn’t love her.
The problem was, what should she do? A college education was important to her and to her parents. Money had always been a big issue. Her parents helped her as much as they could, but they also had other children in college. Roseanne worked odd, inconvenient hours at a fast-food restaurant for a while. She also worked as a cook several nights a week at a diner.
What if she kept the baby? She was fairly certain Hank didn’t want to marry her. Even if he did, she didn’t think she’d want to be stuck with him for the rest of her life. How could she possibly manage on her own with a baby? She shared a two-bedroom apartment with three other female students. How could she take care of a baby with no money and no place to go? She felt dropping out of college would ruin
her life. The idea of going on welfare instead of working in welfare was terrifying.
What about adoption? That would mean seven more months of pregnancy while she was going to college. She wondered what her friends and family would say about choosing adoption as an option. She thought about how difficult that would be—she would always wonder where her child was and how he or she was doing. She couldn’t bear the thought of pursuing this option.
Yet, the idea of an abortion scared her. She had heard so many people say that it was murder.
Roseanne made her decision, but it certainly was not an easy one. She carefully addressed and considered the religious and moral issues involved in terminating a pregnancy. She decided that she would have to face the responsibility and the guilt. In determining that having a baby at this time would be disastrous both for herself and for a new life, she decided to have an abortion.
Fourteen years have passed. Roseanne is now 35. She is no longer in social work, although she finished her degree. She does have a good job as a court reporter. This job suits her well. She’s been married to Tom for three years. Although they have their ups and downs, she is happy in her marriage. They love each other very much and enjoy their time together.
Roseanne thinks about her abortion once in a while. Although she is using no method of contraception, she has not yet gotten pregnant. Possibly she never will. Tom is 43. He has been married once before and has an adult child from that marriage. He does not feel it is a necessity for them to have children.
Roseanne is ambivalent. She is addressing the possibility of not having children and is looking at the consequences of that alternative. She puts it well by saying that sometimes she mourns the loss of her unborn child. Yet, in view of her present level of satisfaction and Tom’s hesitation about having children, she feels that her life thus far has worked out for the best.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 71
the child’s father shuns involvement. In both these instances, some of the woman’s potential mezzo sys-tem options have already been eliminated.
Options are also affected by macro environments. If abortion is illegal, then social agencies are unable to provide them. Another possibility is that states can legally allow abortion only under extremely lim-ited circumstances. For instance, it may be allowed only if the conception is the product of incest or rape, or if the pregnancy and birth seriously endan-ger the pregnant woman’s life.
Even if states allow abortions, the community in which a pregnant woman lives can pose serious re-strictions on her options. For instance, a community renowned for having a strong and well-organized antiabortion movement may be supportive of ac-tions (including legal actions) to curtail abortion services. Abortion clinics can be picketed, patients harassed, and clinic staff personally threatened. Such strong community feelings can force clinics to close.
Additionally, the abortion issue provides an ex-cellent opportunity to distinguish between personal and professional values. Each of us probably has an
EP 1
opinion about abortion. Some of us most likely have strong opinions either one way or the other. In practice, our personal opinions really don’t matter. However, our professional approach does. As professionals, it is our respon-
sibility to help clients come to their own decisions. Our job is to assist clients in assessing their own feel-ings and values, in identifying available alternatives, and in evaluating as objectively as possible the con-sequences of each alternative. It is critical that social workers provide options, not advice.
The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) has established issue and policy statements on family planning and reproductive choice that include its stance on abortion. A policy is a clearly stated or implicit procedure, plan, rule, or stance concerning some issue that serves to guide deci-sion making and behavior. The statements read as follows:
“As social workers, we support the right of individuals to decide for themselves, without duress and according to their own personal beliefs and
The abortion issue is one of most controversial in the country. Here, opposite sides confront each other at a demonstration.
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72 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
convictions, whether they want to become parents, how many children they are willing and able to nurture, the opportune time for them to have children, and with whom they may choose to parent . . . To support self-determination, . . . reproductive health services, including abortion services, must be legally, economically, and geographically accessible to all who need them . . . Denying people with low income access to the full range of contraceptive methods, abortion, and sterilization services, and the educational programs that explain them, perpetuate poverty and the dependence on welfare programs and support the status quo of class stratification . . . NASW supports . . .
● [A] woman’s right to obtain an abortion, per-formed according to accepted medical standards and in an environment free of harassment or threat for both patients and providers.
● [R]eproductive health services, including abor-tion services, that are confidential, available at a reasonable cost, and covered in public and private health insurance plans on a par with other kinds of health services (contraceptive equity).
● [I]mproved access to the full range of repro-ductive health services, including abortion services, for groups currently underserved in the United States, including people with low income and those who rely on Medicaid 6 to pay for their health care . . .” (NASW, 2012, pp. 131, 133)
Seven aspects of abortion are discussed here. First, we describe the current impact of legal and political macro systems. Second, we note the inci-dence of abortion and provide a profile of women who have abortions. Third, we explore reasons why women seek abortions. Fourth, we explain the abor-tion process itself and the types of abortion available. Fifth, we briefly examine some of the psychological effects of abortion. Sixth, we compare and assess the arguments for and against abortion. Seventh, we de-scribe a variety of social work roles with respect to the abortion issue.
6Medicaid is a public assistance program, established in 1965 and funded by federal and state governments, that pays for medical and hospital services for eligible people, determined to be in need, who are unable to pay for these services themselves.
The Impacts of Macro-System Policies on Practice and Access to ServicesPeople’s values affect laws that, in turn, regulate policy regarding how people can make decisions and choose to act. Government and agency policies spec-ify and regulate what services organizations can pro-vide to women within communities. Subsequently, whether services are available or not controls the choices available to most pregnant women.
The abortion debate focuses on two opposing perspectives, antiabortion and pro-choice. Carroll (2013b) describes the antiabortion stance as the be-lief “that human life begins at conception, and thus an embryo, at any stage of development, is a person. [Therefore,] . . . aborting a fetus is murder, and . . . the government should make all abortions illegal” (p. 366).
Pro-choice advocates, on the other hand, focus on a woman’s right to choose whether to have an abor-tion. They believe that a woman has the right to con-trol what happens to her own body, to navigate her own life, and to pursue her own current and future happiness.
For more than four decades, the political contro-versy over abortion has been raging. In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court decision known as Roe v. Wade over-ruled state laws that prohibited or restricted a wom-an’s right to obtain an abortion during the first three months of pregnancy. States were allowed to impose restrictions in the second trimester only when such restrictions related directly to the mother’s health. Finally, during the third trimester states could re-strict abortions or even forbid them, excluding those necessary to preserve a woman’s life and health. Women, in essence, won the right to “privacy,” or in other words, “the right to be left alone” (Hartman, 1991, p. 467). This, of course, is a pro-choice stance.
The courts have gotten increasingly more conser-vative concerning abortion. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), the Supreme Court ruled that states had the right to restrict abortions as they saw fit, ex-cept that they could not outlaw all abortions. Addi-tionally, the Court has put restrictions of increasing severity into place. In Harris v. McRae (1980), the Court confirmed that both Congress and individual states could legally refuse to pay for abortions. This significantly affected poor women.
In Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989), the Supreme Court upheld a restrictive Missouri law.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 73
This law “prohibits performing abortions in public hospitals unless the mother’s life is in danger; forbids the spending of state funds for counseling women about abortion; and requires doctors to add an ex-pensive layer of testing before performing abortions after twenty weeks if they feel it will help them de-termine whether a fetus would be viable outside the womb” (Wermiel & McQueen, 1989, p. 1).
Since this decision, many states have passed bills imposing restrictions on abortions that will be dis-cussed in more detail later (e.g., requiring waiting periods or parental consent for teens). Kirk and Okazawa-Rey (2013) reflect on the gradual chipping away of abortion rights:
For nearly forty years, well-funded anti-abortion groups have worked strategically to undermine and overturn the right to abortion. They have used public education, mainstream media, protests and direct action-including attacks on clinics and their staffs . . .They have financed and elected anti-choice political candidates at city, state, and congressional levels. Republican congresspersons have introduced bills session after session to whittle away at the legality of abortion and elevate the unborn child, even as a “nonviable fetus,” to the status of “personhood” with rights equal to or greater than those of the mother. If the Supreme Court overturns Roe v. Wade, legal jurisdiction will revert to the states, many of which are poised to ban abortion or to re-criminalize it . . . This issue is central to women’s autonomy and will continue to be highly contentious. (p. 217)
The abortion debate continues. New decisions are made daily at the state and federal levels. However, numerous issues remain in the forefront when assess-ing the impacts on clients’ rights and on their ability to function. Several have surfaced in recent years and will probably continue to characterize the abortion debate. We will discuss a number of them here: restricting ac-cess through legal barriers, limiting financial support, the mother’s condition, the fetus’s condition, violence against clinics, stem cell research, and intact dilation and extraction (often referred to by opponents as “partial-birth abortion”). Spotlight 2.1 presents some international perspectives on abortion policy.
Restricting AccessThere are several ways legislation can restrict access to abortion (Center for Reproductive Rights [CRR],
2014). First, states can enact mandatory delays be-fore an abortion can be performed. For example, a state may require a 24-hour waiting period from the time a woman initiates the abortion process to the time the procedure is completed. The decision to abort can be very painful for many reasons, and a waiting period can result in significant stress. Critics indicate that such rules aim to impose obstacles in getting abortions, thus discouraging women from doing so. This rule makes access to abortion espe-cially difficult for poor women from rural areas who have to travel significant distances for the abortion and have little or no money for lodging.
A second type of restriction requires women to receive designated material that may present a nega-tive view of abortion or counseling prior to undergo-ing an abortion. Critics of this legislation maintain that it only encourages women to delay an abortion procedure; “intrudes on a woman’s autonomy and dignity; interferes with the physician’s professional practice; and corrupts the informed consent process” (CRR, 2009).
The following summarizes state waiting pe-riods and mandatory counseling requirements (Guttmacher Institute, 2016a).
● Thirty-five states require that women receive counseling prior to receiving an abortion.
● Twenty-seven of these states also require that a specified period of time, usually 24 hours, elapse between counseling and the actual abortion.
● Thirteen states require two separate visits to the facility, one for counseling and another to begin the waiting period.
A third legal barrier concerns requiring teenagers to either notify one or both parents or receive con-sent from one or both parents before getting an abor-tion. Some states also allow minors to seek a court order to exempt them from parental involvement. Thirty-eight states have enacted parental involve-ment laws (Guttmacher Institute, 2016b). Fear of confronting parents may cause many young women to delay making the decision to have an abortion. Receiving court permission, where allowed, may also result in difficult delays.
Other legal barriers can also be established. In 2013 Texas passed a law that “requires doctors per-forming abortions to have admitting privileges at a . . . hospital” that must be located within 30 miles of the clinic (Liptak, 2013). Although a number of
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74 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 2.1
international perspective on abortion policyAbortion incidence and policy vary around the world as explained by the following statistics (Guttmacher, 2016c). During 2010–2014, an estimated 56 million abortions occurred each year worldwide. This number is up from the rates of abortions from 1990 to 1994, mainly due to population growth. However, rates vary significantly among countries, especially between developed and developing nations. Women in developing regions have a higher likelihood of having an abortion than in developed regions. In developing regions, the number of abortions annually in 2014 was 50 million, whereas in developed regions the number was 7 million. The highest rates of abortion in 2010–2014 were in the Caribbean and South American, with the lowest rates being in North America and Western and Northern Europe. Induced abortions can be medically safe when done in accordance with recommended guidelines, but globally many are performed in unsafe conditions. Almost all abortion related deaths occur in developing countries.
Women who are poor that live in developing countries have little access to family planning services and few economic resources to pay for safe abortions. As a result, they are more likely to encounter health problems related to unsafe abortion practices. In places where abortion is legal, it tends to be much safer. On the other hand, where abortion is forbidden, it is less safe. That makes sense as legality offers the opportunity for trained, knowledgeable, and skilled personnel to perform abortions.
Huge variations exist around the world in abortion policy (Cohen 2009):
Throughout Europe, except for Ireland and Poland, abortion is broadly legal, widely available and safe . . . China was the first large developing country to enact a liberal abortion law—in 1957. The Soviet Union and the central and western Asian republics enacted similar laws in the 1950s. Over the next 50 years, abortion become legal on broad grounds in a wide range of less developed
countries, including Cuba (1965), Singapore (1970), India (1971), Zambia (1972), Tunisia (1973), Vietnam (1975), Turkey (1983). Taiwan (1985), Mongolia (1989), South Africa (1996) and Cambodia (1997). Indeed, the worldwide trend in abortion law has continued to be toward liberalization. And since 1997, another 21 countries or populous jurisdictions have liberalized their laws, including Colombia, Ethiopia, Iran, Mexico City, Nepal, Portugal, and Thailand. During this same period, only three countries—El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Poland—have increased restrictions.
Today, 60% of the world’s 1.55 billion women of reproductive age (15–44) live in countries where abortion is broadly legal.
The remaining 40% live where abortion is highly restricted, virtually all in the developing world. In Africa, 92% of women of reproductive age live under severely restrictive laws; in Latin America, 97% do.
Also consider the following global facts (Cohen, 2009):
● Unsafe abortions take the lives of 70,000 women annually (or 12.5 percent of all deaths related to pregnancy).
● Around the world, seven women die from an unsafe abor-tion every hour.
● Eight million women experience complications from abor-tion that can be very serious.
● Almost 3 million women who experience serious complica-tions related to abortion receive no medical attention.
Cohen (2009) makes the following conclusions. The most effective way to address unwanted pregnancy is to provide readily available contraception to prevent pregnancy from occurring to begin with. However, in developing nations where resources are scarce, this is now a difficult, perhaps impossible, goal. Women who are desperate will resort to abortion whether it is legal or not. In places where abortion is not legal, it is likely unsafe and potentially deadly.
abortion rights groups and clinics subsequently sought the attention of the U.S. Supreme Court, the Court refused to address and rule on the law. As a result, the law effectively closed 36 abortion clinics, left 24 counties without such services, and prevented “some 20,000 women a year from access to safe abortions” (Liptak, 2013).
Bill and Karen Bell (National Abortion Federa-tion, 2004) tell the story of their “beautiful, vibrant, 17-year-old daughter Becky [who] died suddenly,
after a six-day illness.” The diagnosis was a form of pneumonia “brought about by an illegal abortion.” Bill and Karen couldn’t believe that this had hap-pened to their daughter. Why didn’t she tell them she was pregnant? They could have helped and sup-ported her. They learned the heartbreaking answer by talking to Becky’s friends. Becky’s parents re-flected, “Becky had told her girlfriends that she be-lieved we would be terribly hurt and disappointed in her if she told us about her pregnancy. Like a lot of
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 75
young people, she was not comfortable sharing inti-mate details of her developing sexuality with her par-ents.” A parental consent law was in effect in Becky’s state. Although a request to the court was an option, the presiding judge had never granted a request for an abortion in over a decade. Desperate, Becky opted for an illegal, unsafe “back-alley abortion.”
The U.S. military also restricts access to abortion while at the same time women in the military report difficulty getting the type of birth control they wanted before deploying or having trouble refilling prescrip-tions while on duty (Miller, 2016). Medical treatment facilities on military bases are restricted from per-forming abortions for U.S. military personnel unless the life of the mother is endangered or the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. This can cause difficul-ties for military women who want to seek an abortion as they may need to return to the United States to re-ceive safe and legal abortions and it also forces them to have to pay out of pocket for the expense.
Limiting Financial SupportOne clear trend since 1973 has been the antiabortion factions’ pressure to limit, minimize, and eventually prohibit any public financial support for abortion. This significantly affects poor women. Only 17 states provide Medicaid funding for all medically necessary abortions (Guttmacher Institute, 2016d). (Medicaid is a public assistance program, established in 1965 and funded by federal and state governments, that pays for medical and hospital services for eligible people, determined to be in need, who are unable to pay for these services themselves.) The Hyde amendment, introduced to Congress in 1977, abolished federal funding for abortion unless a woman’s life was in danger. Congress has renewed this legislation an-nually, imposing various restrictions on abortion funding. Since 1993, Medicaid can fund an abortion only in the case of rape, incest, or a life-threatening situation; 32 states and the District of Columbia abide by this standard (Guttmacher Institute, 2016d). “Even when a woman’s health is jeopardized by her pregnancy to the extent that it will leave her incapaci-tated, unable to care for her children or hold down a job, she is still not eligible for Medicaid funding in many states” (CRR, 2003, July 8).
Nabha and Blasdell (2002) provide an example:
31-year-old “Alina” had bipolar disorder [a mental disorder involving extreme moods including manic frenzy, severe depression, or both] and
obsessive-compulsive disorder [a mental disorder involving an obsession with organization, neatness, perfectionism, and control], and was taking psycho-tropic medications known to cause fetal anomalies. She also had fibromyalgia, a disease that causes weakness, exhaustion, numbness, and dizziness, in addition to other symptoms. As a result of these circumstances, Alina chose to have an abortion. Although Alina was enrolled in Medicaid during this period, the program in her state refused to cover abortions necessary to protect a woman’s health, so she was unable to receive any public funds.
Another approach for limiting financial support involves the concept of a gag rule—that is, banning federal funding to agencies that allow staff to talk to pregnant women about abortion as an alterna-tive. Depending on the stance of various adminis-trations, gag rules have been supported or rebuffed. For example, at one point Planned Parenthood said it would give up its federal funding rather than fail to discuss all options available to clients, including abortion. (Planned Parenthood is an international or-ganization dedicated to promoting the use of family planning and contraception.) The gag rule also has the potential to prohibit giving federal money to in-ternational groups that perform abortions or provide abortion information.
Ten states forbid private insurance plans from covering abortion; 21 states restrict insurance cover-age of abortions for public employees (Guttmacher Institute, 2016e).
Condition of the MotherSome people support the idea that abortion is ac-ceptable under specific conditions. One involves the mother’s health. Should an abortion be performed if carrying the fetus to full term will kill the mother? Whose life is more important—that of the mother or that of the fetus?
Another issue is this: Should a woman impreg-nated during rape or incest be forced to carry the fetus to term? Is it fair for a woman who has under-gone the horror of a sexual assault to be forced to live with the assault’s result, an unwanted child, for the rest of her life?
Fetal ConditionThe condition of the fetus illustrates another cir-cumstance in which some people consider abortion
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76 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
acceptable. If the fetus is severely damaged or defec-tive, should the mother have to carry it to term? If the woman is forced to bear the child, shouldn’t she be provided with resources to care for herself and the child before and after birth? To what extent would a mother forced to bear a severely disabled child also be forced to provide the huge resources necessary for maintaining such a child?
Ethical Question 2.2
What are your personal views about abortion? Under what, if any, circumstances do you think it might be performed?
Violence Against ClinicsThe abortion controversy has been fraught with violence. Statistics on violence against abor-tion clinics have been recorded since 1977 (NAF, 2015). In 2014, there were 99 incidents of violence against abortion providers in the United States and Canada; these included arson, attempted bomb-ings, invasions, vandalism, trespassing, anthrax threats, assault and battery, death threats, burglary, and stalking (“the persistent following, threaten-ing, and harassing of an abortion provider, staff member, or patient away from the clinic”) (NAF, 2014). Several recent attacks reflect extreme aggres-sion by people who stand strongly against abortion (LeClaire, 2013).
Since the first attack on an abortion clinic in 1976, antiabortion extremists have continued to at-tack abortion clinics, physicians who perform abor-tions, and women seeking abortions or medical care. In 2015, “heavily-edited, misleading” antiabortion videos were released on the internet and were said to be the reason for an attack on abortion facility in Colorado Spring, CO (which was featured in one of the videos) in which three people were killed and nine were injured (NAF, 2015). In the same year, there were arsons at clinics in California, Washing-ton, Louisiana, and Illinois.
Abortion clinics and pro-choice groups stress that they are functioning legally and need protection from harassment and violence. In 1994, a legal deci-sion and legislation served to help
safeguard women’s right to access their legal rights. After the public outcry associated with the public harassment, wounding, and death of abortion services providers, and the vandalism and bombing of various clinics, the Supreme Court ruled in Madsen et al. v. Women’s Health Center, Inc. [1994] to allow a buffer zone around clinics to permit patients and employees access and to control noise around the premises. The same year the Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances (FACE) Act made it a federal crime to block access, harass, or incite violence in the context of abortion services. (Shaw & Lee, 2012, p. 308)
The Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances (FACE) Act prohibits such activities as trespassing, physical violence such as shoving, “vandalizing a reproductive health care facility by gluing locks or spraying butyric acid” (an acid used in disinfectants and other pharmaceuticals), threatening violence, stalking employees, and making bomb or arson threats (NAF, 2015; Blasdell & Goss, 2004).
To the extent that violence against clinics and ha-rassment of clinic staff and patients continue, wom-en’s access to legal abortions may be significantly curtailed. For whatever reason, the number of U.S. abortions performed has reached its record low since 1980 (Guttmacher, 2016c).
Stem Cell ResearchAn ongoing controversial issue related to abortion involves the use of fetal tissue (stern cells) for health research and treatment. As Kail and Cavanaugh explain,
stem cells are unspecialized human or animal cells that can produce mature specialized body cells and at the same time replicate themselves . . . Medical researchers are interested in using stem cells to repair or replace damaged body tissues because stem cells are less likely than other foreign cells to be rejected by the immune system when they are implanted in the body. (Tissue and organ rejection is a major problem following transplant surgery, for example.) Embryonic stem cells have the capacity to develop into every type of tissue found in an adult. Stem cells have been used experimentally to form the blood-making cells of the bone marrow and heart, blood vessel, muscle, and insulin-producing tissue. (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2014, p. 26)
Significant research has focused on the potential for using stem cells to combat spinal cord injuries,
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 7 7
Parkinson’s disease,7 juvenile diabetes,8 heart dis-ease, and Alzheimer’s disease;9 more than 100 million Americans suffer from some form of disease that could potentially benefit from stem cell research (Kalb & Rosenberg, 2004). Kalb and Rosenberg give the ex-ample of Maggie, age 4, who suffers from juvenile dia-betes and is in need of help. “Ten to 15 times a day, Maggie’s blood sugar must be checked. And the little blond ballerina has to wear a portable insulin pump, which delivers insulin through a tube inserted into her abdomen or lower back. She carries the device to preschool in a fanny pack decorated with yellow and green ladybugs” (Kalb & Rosenberg, 2004, p. 44).
Although research has focused on a few different types of cells with some potential to function as stem cells (the discussion of which is beyond the scope of this book), much attention and research has centered on embryonic stem cells. Embryonic stem cells are cells taken from a 3-to-5-day-old embryo that has been de-veloped during an in vitro fertilization process. In vitro is Latin for “in glass,” referring to something done in an artificial environment, such as in a laboratory dish or test tube; in vitro fertilization10 (discussed later in this chapter) refers to a procedure that unites the egg and sperm in a laboratory; stem cells “are not derived from eggs fertilized in a woman’s body” (NIH, 2015). When such cells were no longer needed for the in vitro fertilization process, “they were donated for research with the informed consent of the donor” (NIH, 2015). Sometimes, you might hear the term embryonic stem cell lines. This refers to embryonic stem cells that “have been cultured under in vitro conditions” for continuous cell division and specialization (as they develop into more specific types of tissue) and are studied “for months to years” (NIH, 2015).
Many people have strong opinions about stem cell research. An issue at the heart of the debate
7Parkinson’s disease is a progressive disease of the nervous system, usually occurring later in life, that is characterized by muscular weakness, tremors, and a shuffling gait.8Juvenile diabetes is a severe, chronic disease affecting children and young adults, in which the body fails to produce enough insulin, resulting in increased sugar in the bloodstream, extreme thirst, frequent urination, and gradual deterioration (Berube, 2002).9Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative brain disorder that gradually causes deterioration in intelligence, memory, awareness, and ability to control bodily functions.10In vitro fertilization, discussed later in the chapter, is a process in which eggs are removed from a woman’s body, fertilized with sperm in a laboratory, and then implanted in the woman’s uterus.
concerns whether the study and use of human em-bryonic tissue reflects the obliteration of human life. “Religious conservatives argue that using those stem cells means deriving benefit from the destruction of human embryos—fertilized eggs in early stages of development—in their eyes no less a crime than abortion” (Lacayo, 2001, p. 17).
People who support embryonic stem cell research contend that it has incredible positive potential. The National Institutes of Health (2013b) reports on “the promise of stem cells”:
Studying stem cells will help us understand how they transform into the dazzling array of specialized cells that make us what we are. Some of the most serious medical conditions, such as cancer and birth defects, are due to problems that occur somewhere in this process. A better understanding of normal cell development will allow us to understand and perhaps correct the errors that cause these medical conditions.
Another potential application of stem cells is making cells and tissues for medical therapies. Today, donated organs and tissues are often used to replace those that are diseased or destroyed. Unfortunately, the number of people needing a transplant far exceeds the number of organs available for transplantation . . . [S]tem cells offer the possibility of a renewable source of replacement cells and tissues to treat a myriad of diseases, conditions, and disabilities including Parkinson’s disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal cord injury, burns, heart disease, diabetes, and arthritis.
The debate rages in the national and state politi-cal arenas. Depending on the political orientation of those in power at the national and state levels, stem cell research may or may not receive various degrees of support. Research may be encouraged or prohib-ited. Funding may be provided or withdrawn.
Consider recent shifting national policy (Research America, 2013). Former president George W. Bush limited stem cell research by allowing federal fund-ing for study only involving already established stem cell lines (stem cells already cultured in vitro and ready for use in research). Subsequently, President Barack Obama issued an executive order in 2009 negating the prior mandate, allowing federal fund-ing for potential study of new stem cell lines, and thereby expanding stem cell research. However, since
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78 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
this mandate has not been signed into law, the future of stem cell research remains uncertain. It depends on national leadership and the political climate.
Note that “[i]ndividual states have the authority to pass laws to permit human embryonic stem cell research using state funds” instead of or in addition to federal funds (NIH, 2010). Numerous states have taken steps to support stem cell research through funding (e.g., grants), such mechanisms as technical assistance, and encouragement of inter-agency and inter-state cooperation (NIH, 2010).
Stem cell research provides an example of how the ever-changing political context affects what can be and is done. As with many other issues influenc-ing the human condition, social workers should keep abreast of such circumstances in their ongoing learning about human behavior. Participating in a career-long learning process is part of their profes-sional responsibility.
Ethical Question 2.3
What is your opinion about using embryonic stem cells for research? Should the possibility of helping many seriously ill people through stem cell research be pursued? Or is an embryo several days old a human being that should be respected as such? How do you feel about embryonic tissue that is discarded after use at fertility clinics?
Highlight 2.4 addresses another very controver-sial issue—the late-term abortion procedure known as intact dilation and extraction (referred to by some as “partial-birth abortion”).
intact Dilation and extraction (late-term abortion)Intact dilation and extraction (D&X) is “a late-term abortion involving partial delivery of a viable fetus before extraction” (Berube, 2002, p. 1014). It is performed after “20 weeks and before viability” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 323). Although physicians refer to it as intact dilation and extraction, its opponents often refer to it as partial-birth abortion (DiNitto, 2005, p. 462). Opponents view the procedure as “the interference with the birth of a live baby, rather than the termination of a pregnancy” (Greenberg, Bruess, & Conklin, 2011, p. 264). In practice, it has been “reserved for situations when serious health risks to the woman, or severe fetal abnormalities, exist” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 323).
In November 2003, President Bush “signed into law the first ban on a specific abortion procedure,” namely the D&X, making it “a criminal offense for doctors to perform the procedure, even to preserve the woman’s health” (DiNitto, 2005, p. 462). In April 2007, the Supreme Court upheld this law that “includes no health exception” and prohibits the procedure from being used (Guttmacher Institute, 2013a).
The following facts reflect the current state of partial-birth abortion (Guttmacher Institute, 2013a):
● At the time of this writing, 32 states have established bans on “partial-birth” abortion, 19 of which are in effect and 13 of which have been blocked by a court.
● The definition of “partial-birth” abortion varies widely from one state to another.
● All 32 state laws incorporate some kind of exception.
In reality, the majority (61.2%) of abortions are performed at less than 9 weeks’ gestation, and 88.6 percent at or before 12 weeks (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Ethical Question 2.4
What is your opinion about intact dilation and extraction? Should it be legally allowed if the pregnant woman faces serious health risks with continued pregnancy? If the woman risks death? If the fetus suffers from serious mental or physical abnormalities?
HIGHLIGHT 2.4
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 79
CommentaryWe have just scratched the surface of some of the debates currently raging. Social workers need to understand the issues and the context in which op-posing views are raised in order to help clients make difficult decisions. The abortion issue with its potent pro-choice and antiabortion factions in the politi-cal arena illustrates the impact that macro systems can have on individual lives. The extent to which national policies limit the availability of abortion relates directly to service accessibility. Organizations in the macro environment must have the sanction of the national and state macro systems in order to pro-vide women with free choice.
The next sections describe the incidence of abor-tion, reasons for abortion, common abortion proce-dures, and the pros and cons of abortion. Finally, various social work roles concerning the issue are discussed.
Incidence of AbortionIn 2011, the abortion rate was on the decline, with 1.06 million abortions performed compared to the 1.21 million in 2008 (Guttmacher, 2016c).
“Nearly half of pregnancies among American women are unintended, and four in 10 of these [un-intended pregnancies] are terminated by abortion. Twenty-two percent of all pregnancies (excluding miscarriages) end in abortion” (Guttmacher Insti-tute, 2016c). As Table 2.1 indicates, about one-third of all abortions were performed for women ages 20 to 24. Almost three-quarters of all abortions were for women between the ages of 15 and 29, which makes sense in terms of maximum female fertil-ity. The largest number of women having abortions (41%) had not had any children. This was followed by those having had one previous child (26%) and two or more previous children (19%).
“Fifty-one percent of women who have abortions had used a contraceptive method (usually the con-dom or hormonal method) during the month they became pregnant” (Guttmacher Institute, 2016).
Almost 86 percent of women having abortions are unmarried (Jerman, Jones, & Onda, 2016). Abortions are spread across races. Thirty-nine percent of abor-tions occur to non-Hispanic white women, 28 percent to non-Hispanic African American women, 25 per-cent to Hispanic women, and 3 percent to women of other races (Jerman, Jones, & Onda, 2016). Thirty
percent of women having an abortion state they are protestant and 24 percent Catholic (Guttmacher In-stitute, 2016). Women having abortions tend to be poor. Forty-nine percent of women having abortions have incomes below the federal poverty line, and an-other 26 percent have incomes of 100 to 199 percent of the poverty line (Guttmacher Institute, 2016).
Reasons for AbortionUnplanned or accidental pregnancy has three basic causes. First, the couple may not use contraception at all. Second, they may use it ineffectively, inconsis-tently, or incorrectly. Third, no method of contra-ception is perfect; each has a failure rate. (Chapter 6 discusses contraception in greater detail.)
Women give several reasons for having an abor-tion. “Three-fourths of women cite concern for or responsibility to other individuals; three-fourths say they cannot afford a child; three-fourths say that having a baby would interfere with work, school or the ability to care for dependents; and half say they do not want to be a single parent or are having prob-lems with their husband or partner” (Guttmacher Institute, 2016). Many abortions are also performed annually in the United States following a rape.
TABLE 2.1
AGE TOTAL ABORTIONS (%)
Under 15 .2
15 to 17 years 3.4
18 to 19 years 8.2
20 to 24 years 33.6
25 to 29 years 26.5
30 to 34 years 15.9
35 to 39 years 9.1
40 years and over 3.1
Number of previous childbirths
none 40.7
one 26.2
two or more 19.1
FACTS ABOUT WOMEN HAVING ABORTIONS* 2014
*these facts were gleaned from Jerman, J., Jones, R. K., and onda, t. (2016), “characteristics of U.S. abortion patients in 2014 and changes since 2008”.
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8 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
No one desires to have an unwanted pregnancy that ends in abortion. It is a difficult choice to make among a range of alternatives, all of which have neg-ative consequences. One implication is the impor-tance of readily accessible contraception and family planning counseling so that the difficult alternative of abortion is no longer necessary.
Methods of AbortionSeveral different procedures are used to perform abortions, depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed. The cost for an abortion during the first trimester is about $1,500 depending on the length of gestation, where you get services, and what type of services they are (Planned Parenthood, 2016). Costs are higher when the abortion occurs later in the pregnancy. The two major kinds of abortion are a medication abortion (sometimes referred to as an “abortion pill”) and abortion procedures performed within a clinic. Methods used early in pregnancy include vacuum aspiration and medication abor-tion. Procedures used later on include dilation and evacuation, and intact dilation and evacuation (dis-cussed in Highlight 2.4). Illegal abortion will also be mentioned.
Medication AbortionA medication abortion is an abortion induced by tak-ing certain drugs. The most commonly used drug in the United States, mifepristone (formerly referred to as RU-486), triggers a deterioration of the uterine lin-ing (Planned Parenthood, 2016). It was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use as an abortion drug in 2000, and has been used in several European countries for over a decade ear-lier. The process involves taking mifepristone and then taking a dose of misoprostol (a prostaglandin that triggers uterine contractions) up to three days later. As mentioned, mifepristone causes the uterine lining to break down, which makes it unable to sup-port a fetus. The subsequent dose of misoprostol then causes uterine contractions that expel the fetus. A medication abortion can be performed up to 70 days (10 weeks) after the first day of a woman’s last period and costs up to $800; note that some states restrict the period of use to 49 days (Planned Parenthood, 2016).
A majority of women abort within four or five hours of taking misoprostol; overall, the process is 97 percent effective (Planned Parenthood, 2008a).
Potential side effects include dizziness, severe cramp-ing, nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pain, and mild fever or chills (most of which can be reduced by taking Tylenol or ibuprofen [e.g., Advil], not aspi-rin) (Planned Parenthood, 2013). In 2011, about 23 percent of all abortions were medication abor-tions (Guttmacher Institute, 2016b).
Vacuum AspirationVacuum aspiration (also referred to as vacuum cu-rettage or suction curettage) is a procedure used up to 16 weeks after a missed period (Planned Parent-hood, 2016). The cervical entrance is enlarged, and the contents of the uterus are evacuated through a suction tube. Usually done under local anesthesia, the procedure involves first dilating the cervix (i.e., widening the opening into the uterus) by insert-ing a series of rods with increasing diameters. Then a small tube is inserted into the vagina and subse-quently through the cervix into the uterus. The tube is connected to a suction machine that vacuums out the fetal tissue from the uterus. Sometimes, curettage (scraping with a small, spoon-shaped instrument called a curette) is used afterward (Planned Parent-hood, 2016). The entire procedure takes about 5 to 10 minutes in addition to preparation time (Planned Parenthood, 2016).
Most abortions are performed in clinics, where staff usually require that a patient remain for a cou-ple hours following an abortion. Primary side effects include some bleeding and cramping, which are con-sidered normal. Vacuum aspiration is considered a very safe procedure and rarely has complications.
Dilation and EvacuationSecond-trimester abortions are more complicated and involve greater risks. An abortion method that can be used during the fourth and fifth months of pregnancy is dilation and evacuation (D&E). This method resembles vacuum aspiration in that fetal ma-terial is initially suctioned out of the uterus and then usually scraped out with a curette. However, because a D&E is performed later in pregnancy, a greater amount of fetal material must be removed. General anesthesia instead of local is used. Potential compli-cations include those associated with vacuum aspira-tion and those resulting from general anesthesia.
Illegal AbortionMany women turn to unsafe illegal abortions when safe procedures are illegal or inaccessible. We have
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 81
established that 40 percent of women of reproduc-tive age live in nations where abortion is highly re-stricted or prohibited (Cohen, 2009). In desperation, many women turn to unregulated, unqualified abor-tionists who may use unclean or unsafe instruments. Other women try to abort themselves by using some sharp object or ingesting some harmful substance. We have also established that 70,000 women around the world die annually from dangerous illegal abor-tions (Cohen, 2009).
The Importance of Context and TimingAlthough abortion is considered a very safe medical practice in the United States, the further a woman is into her pregnancy, the greater the risk of death; only one death occurs for every million abortions performed before eight weeks of pregnancy, one death for every 29,000 abortions during weeks 16 to 20 of pregnancy, and one death per 11,000 abor-tions performed at 21 or more weeks of pregnancy (Guttmacher Institute, 2013e). Problems are also less likely to occur when the woman is healthy, condi-tions are clean and safe, and follow-up care is readily available. Women are about 11 times more likely to die in childbirth than from an abortion performed
during the first 20 weeks of pregnancy (Planned Parenthood, 2016).
Risks from abortion complications are negli-gible; less than 0.5 percent of women having an abortion require subsequent hospitalization for complications (Guttmacher Institute, 2013e). Risks such as allergic reactions to medication or seda-tion, infection, blood clots, or heavy bleeding are very rare in first-trimester abortions, but increase in probability as the pregnancy continues (Planned Parenthood, 2016).
Spotlight 2.2 explores the psychological effects of abortion on both women and men.
Arguments for and Against AbortionNumerous arguments have been advanced for and against permitting abortions. Many of these views are related to how facts are interpreted and pre-sented. Following is a sampling of arguments in fa-vor of abortion rights:
● Permitting women to obtain an abortion corresponds with the principle of self-determination and allows women to have greater freedom of choice concerning their own bodies and lives.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 2.2
effects of abortion on Women and menRe s e a rc h i n d i c at e s t h at m o s t wo m e n demonstrate positive adjustment a year after an abortion and rarely suffer long-term psychological effects from an abortion (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014; Munk-Olsen et al., 2011). Many women “report feeling relieved,
satisfied, and relatively happy, and say that if they had the decision to make over again they would do the same thing”; there is little support for the existence of a “postabortion syndrome” characterized by traits similar to those of posttraumatic stress disorder* (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014, p. 181).
However, Kelly (2008) cautions:
Although serious emotional complications following abortion are quite rare, some women and their male partners experience some degree of depression, grieving, regret, or sense of loss. These reactions tend to be even more likely in second or third abortions. Support and counseling from friends, family members, or professionals
following an abortion often help to lighten this distress, and it typically fades within several weeks after the procedure. Counseling often helps in cases where the distress does not become alleviated in a reasonable time. (p. 324)
A frequently ignored psychological aspect of abortion is the male’s reaction to the process. Many men experience feelings of “residual guilt, sadness, and remorse” (Yarber & Sayad, 2013, p. 355). A man may feel ambivalent about the pregnancy and the abortion similar to that felt by his pregnant partner. Many clinics now provide counseling for male partners of women seeking abortion (Yarber & Sayad, 2013). Both partners should receive the counseling they need to make difficult decisions and to cope with whatever feelings they are experiencing.
*Posttraumatic stress disorder is a condition in which a person continues to reexperience an excessively traumatic event, such as a bloody battle or a sexual assault.
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82 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
● If abortions were prohibited, women would seek illegal abortions as they did in the past. No law has ever stopped abortion, and no law ever will. Performed in a medical clinic or hospital, an abortion is relatively safe; but performed under unsanitary conditions, perhaps by an inexperienced or unskilled abortionist, the operation is extremely dangerous and may even imperil the woman’s life.
● If abortions were prohibited, some women would attempt to self-induce abortions. Such attempts can be life-threatening. Women have tried such techniques as severe exercise, hot baths, and pelvic and intestinal irritants, and have even attempted to lacerate the uterus with such sharp objects as nail files and knives.
● No contraceptive method is perfectly reliable. A l l h ave f a i l u re r at e s a n d d i s a dva n t ag e s. Contraceptive information and services are not readily available and accessible to all women, particularly teenagers, the poor, and rural women.
● Abortions are necessary in many countries with soaring birth rates. Contraceptives may be inadequate, unavailable, or beyond what people can afford. Abortion appears to be a necessary population control technique to preserve the quality of life. (In some countries, the number of abortions is approaching the number of live births.)
Opponents of abortion argue:
● The right of a fetus to life is basic and should in no way be infringed.
● Abortion is immoral and against certain religious beliefs. For example, former Pope John Paul II condemned abortion as a sign of the “encroaching ‘culture of death’ that threatens human dignity and freedom” (Woodward, 1995, p. 56).
● A woman who chooses to have an abortion is selfish. She prefers her own pleasure over the life of her unborn child.
● In a society where contraceptives are so readily available, there should be no unwanted pregnancies and therefore no need for abortion.
● People supporting abortion are antifamily. People should take responsibility for their behavior, cease nonmarital sexual intercourse, and bear children within a family context.
Professional social workers must be aware of ar-guments on both sides of the issue. Only then can
they assist a client in making the decision that is right for her.
Social Worker Roles and Abortion: Empowering WomenSocial workers can assume a variety of roles when helping women with unwanted pregnancies. Among them are enabler, educator, broker, and advocate. First, as enablers, social workers can help women make de-cisions about what they will do. This involves helping clients identify alternatives and evaluate the pros and cons of each. Chilman (1987) reflects upon how social workers can counsel women concerning abortion:
The ultimate decision . . . should be made chiefly by the pregnant woman herself, preferably in consultation with the baby’s father and family members. To make the decision that is best for the couple and their child, the pregnant woman—ideally, with the expectant father—needs to view each option in the context of the couple’s present skills, resources, values, goals, emotions, important interpersonal relationships, and future plans. The counselor’s role is to support and shape a realistic selection of the most feasible pregnancy resolution alternative. (p. 6)
A second role social workers can assume is that of educator. This involves providing the pregnant woman with accurate information about the abor-tion process, adoption, fetal development, and op-tions available to her. The educator role may also entail providing information about contraception to avoid subsequent unwanted pregnancies.
A third social work role involves being a broker. Regardless of her final decision, a pregnant woman will need to acquaint herself with the appropriate resources. These include abortion clinics, prenatal health counseling, and adoption services. A social worker can inform her of available resources, explain them, and help her obtain them.
Finally, a social worker can function as an advo-cate for a pregnant woman. A woman might want an abortion, yet live in a state that severely restricts them; if she is poor, her access to an abortion is even further restricted. A worker can advocate on this woman’s behalf to improve her access to abortion or to financial support for abortion services. Another form of advocacy would be to work to change the laws and policies that inhibit women from getting
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 8 3
the services they need. If a woman decides against an abortion, a social worker can advocate for the resources and services the woman needs to support herself and her pregnancy.
Abortion-Related Ethical Dilemmas in PracticePicture yourself as a professional so-cial worker in practice. What happens when your own personal values seri-ously conflict with those expressed by your client? A basic professional value
clearly specified in the NASW Code of Ethics is the right of clients to make their own decisions.
By definition, an ethical dilemma involves con-flicting principles. When two or more ethical prin-ciples oppose each other, it is impossible to make a “correct” decision that satisfies both or all principles involved. There is no perfect solution. For example, if a 15-year-old client tells you that he plans to mur-der his mother, you are caught in an ethical dilemma. It is impossible to maintain confidentiality with your client (a basic social work professional value) and yet do all you can to protect his mother from harm.
A wide range of situations involving abortion can force workers to address ethical dilemmas. So-cial workers should first consider what principles in the NASW Code of Ethics might help to guide their practice and make decisions. We have emphasized that professional values should take clear precedence over personal values about issues.
Dolgoff, Harrington, and Loewenberg (2012) have formulated a hierarchy of ethical principles, the Ethical Principles Screen (EPS), to provide a guide for making difficult decisions. They suggest which principle should have priority over the other when two ethical principles conflict. The hierarchy can be helpful in working through difficult situations. If the Code of Ethics does not directly apply or a sig-nificant amount of ambiguity exists, the worker may turn to the EPS described next.
The EPS hierarchy involves the following seven principles (pp. 80–82):
● Principle 1: Protection of life is of utmost importance. This might include provision of adequate food, shelter, clothing, or health care. It might concern acting in response to a person’s suicide threat or threat of physically harming another. This principle applies not only to clients but also to others whose survival is imperiled.
● Principle 2: After protection of life, social workers should strive to nurture equality and address inequality. On the one hand, groups should be treated equally and have equal access to resources. On the other hand, groups who are oppressed or hold lesser status should be treated specially so that their rights are not violated. For example, consider a child abuse situation. Because the child does not hold an equal position with that of an abusive parent, “the principles of confidentiality and autonomy with respect to the abusing adult are of a lower rank order than the obligation to protect the child, . . . even when it is not a question of life and death” (p. 81).
● Principle 3: Social workers should make practice decisions that “foster a person’s self-determination, autonomy, independence, and freedom” (p. 81). People should be allowed to make their own choices about their lives. However, this should not be at the expense of their own or someone else’s life as Principle 1 prescribes. Maintaining autonomy should not be pursued if equality supported by Principle 2 would be sacrificed.
● Principle 4: Social workers should pursue an option that results in the least harm to those involved in the decision and its results.
● Principle 5: Social workers should make practice decisions that promote a better quality of life for all people. People’s overall well-being is important. This involves not only the well-being of an individual or family, but also that of entire communities.
● Principle 6: Social workers should respect people’s privacy and maintain confidentiality. However, this principle is superseded when people’s quality of life is endangered.
● Principle 7: Practice decisions should allow workers to be honest and disclose all available information. Workers should be able to provide any information that they deem necessary in any particular situation. However, the “truth” should not be told for its own sake when it violates a client’s confidentiality, which is championed by Principle 6.
The following scenario poses an ethical dilemma concerning abortion that a worker might face in practice. Next, we give an example of how Dolgoff and colleagues’ hierarchy of ethical principles might be applied in this case. Highlight 2.5 provides several
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8 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
more scenarios for you to work out on your own. Remember, there are no easy or perfect answers.
Scenario AA 16-year-old girl was raped by a middle-aged man as she walked home from school one night and be-came pregnant. Both she and her parents are horri-fied and plagued with worry. They come to you for help. The girl desperately wants an abortion.
Application of Ethical Principles in Scenario AConsider Principle 1, the need to protect life. If you personally adopt an antiabortion stance and feel that abortion is murder, what do you do? A profes-sional social worker’s personal values must be ac-knowledged yet put aside in professional situations.
The young woman and her parents want her to have the abortion.
We then look at Principle 2, which calls for the nur-turance of equality and the combating of inequality. According to this principle, people should be treated equally. In this case, they should have equal access to services. A neighboring state, its border only 25 miles away, allows abortions for all women who want them within the first trimester. Is this fair? Is this ethical? Should you help the young woman and her parents seek an abortion in a state that has different rules? Or should you work actively in your own state to ad-vocate for change so that abortion would be a legal alternative for clients such as this?
Now consider Principle 3, which stresses people’s right to autonomy, independence, and freedom. The
more abortion-Related ethical Dilemmas in practiceApply the hierarchy of ethical principles to each of the following case examples.
Scenario AA 45-year-old woman becomes pregnant. She already has seven children and numerous grandchildren. Her personal physician refused to prescribe birth control pills for her because of her age and other health reasons. Nor did he discuss other forms of contraception with her or offer her the alternative of sterilization. Physically, it would be hazardous for her to have more children. She comes to you, distraught and crying. She doesn’t know what to do.
Scenario BA 32-year-old woman with a severe intellectual disability becomes pregnant. She is unable to take care of herself independently. She has a history of numerous sexual encounters. Her genetic background indicates that she would probably have a child with an intellectual disability. It is clear that she would be unable to care for a child herself.
Scenario CA 19-year-old college student is six weeks pregnant. She has been going with her boyfriend for seven months. For the past three months, they have been seeing only each other, but they do not consider themselves serious as yet. She had been using a diaphragm and contraceptive cream, but they failed to protect her. She doesn’t want a baby right now. However, she feels terribly guilty about getting pregnant.
Scenario DA married 24-year-old woman is pregnant. She already has one child with a genetic defect. She and her husband have been through genetic evaluation and counseling at a local university. The conclusion is that because both parents have, a history of significant genetic problems, the chances for a normal child are extremely small. The couple was deciding upon a sterilization procedure when she became pregnant.
Scenario EA married 28-year-old medical technician has been unaware of being pregnant until now, the seventh week of gestation. Throughout her pregnancy, she has been exposed to dangerous X-rays. The possibility that her fetus has been damaged by the radiation is very high. She and her husband want children at some time, but they dread the thought of having a baby with a serious impairment.
Scenario FFour months ago, a married man of 42 had a vasectomy. His 41-year-old wife just found out that she is five weeks pregnant. Some sperm had apparently still been present in his semen. The couple already have three children in their teens. They do not want more.
Scenario GA 14-year-old girl is pregnant. It happened one night when she was out drinking. She had never really considered using contraception. She’s shocked that she’s pregnant and is having difficulty thinking about the future.
HIGHLIGHT 2.5
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 85
young woman has the right to make her own deci-sion. Your state might legally allow abortions for all women seeking them, or it might restrict them to only those women who have been raped or sexually abused. Or your state might ban all abortions unless the life of the mother is critically endangered.
If an abortion is legal in your state for a teenager like this, you as a worker can help her get one. She has made her decision. It is her legal right. However, if your state does not allow her to have a legal abor-tion, you are confronted with another dilemma.
Principle 4 refers to choosing options that result in the least harm to those involved. Principle 5 re-flects the importance of maintaining an optimum quality of life. If this young woman is prevented from having an abortion, will her future be harmed? In what ways might she lose control over her life? How will her short-term and long-term quality of life be affected?
This discussion simply raises questions and is-sues. Each case is unique. Circumstances and atti-tudes vary widely. It is a professional social worker’s ethical responsibility to resolve dilemmas and help clients solve problems to the best of that worker’s ability. Each client should be helped to identify al-ternatives, evaluate the pros and cons of each, and come to a final decision. There are no absolute an-swers or perfect solutions.
LO 4 Explain InfertilityRalph and Carol, both age 28, had been married for five years. Ralph was a drill press operator at a large bathroom fixture plant. Carol was a waitress at a Mexican restaurant. They both liked their jobs well enough. They were earning enough to purchase a small three-bedroom house and to enjoy some pleasurable amenities such as going out to dinner occasionally, taking annual camping vacations, and having cable television.
However, they felt something was wrong. Al-though Carol had stopped taking birth control pills more than three years before, she had still not gotten pregnant. She had read in an article in Cosmopolitan that women over age 35 had a much greater chance of having a child with an intellectual disability or birth defects. Although she still had a few years, she was concerned. She and Ralph had always wanted to have as large a family as they could afford. This meant that they had better get going.
The couple really didn’t talk much about the is-sue. Neither one wanted to imply that something might be wrong with the other one. The idea that one or both might be infertile was not appealing. It was almost easier to ignore the issue and hope that it would resolve itself in a pregnancy. After all, they still had a few years.
Infertility is the inability to conceive despite try-ing for 1 year, or 6 months for women age 35 or older (CDC, 2016). Women who are unable to sus-tain their pregnancies and experience miscarriage are also considered to have an infertility problem. Although many people assume that they will auto-matically initiate a pregnancy if they don’t use con-traception, this is not always the case.
It is estimated that infertility affects 6.7 million American women ages 15 to 44, or almost 12 percent of this group (CDC, 2016). However, this is an ag-gregate statistic that does not take into account the effects of age or a wide range of other conditions. Therefore, the 11 percent figure is probably not use-ful to individual couples seeking infertility counsel-ing. Many other factors should be considered.
For example, consider the statement that older women tend to experience increased infertility. “With increasing age, the quality and quantity of a woman’s eggs begin to decline. In the mid-30s, the rate of follicle loss accelerates, resulting in fewer and poorer quality eggs, making conception more challenging and increasing the risk of miscarriage” (Mayo Clinic, 2013b).
Several other factors also tend to increase infer-tility (Mayo Clinic, 2013b). Smoking increases the risk of miscarriage and ectopic pregnancy (a condi-tion where a fertilized egg implants itself somewhere other than in the uterus, usually in a fallopian tube). Smoking may also age and diminish eggs prema-turely, making it more difficult to become pregnant. Being overweight or extremely underweight, and heavy consumption of alcohol or caffeine (e.g., six cups of coffee or more each day) increases infertility. Contraction of STIs can damage the fallopian tubes, also making it harder to conceive.
Causes of InfertilityOf all infertility cases, males are responsible for ap-proximately one-third and females for about one-third; the remaining third involves a mixture of male and female factors, or unknown causes (Mayo Clinic,
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8 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
2013b). The following sections explore some of the major causes of infertility in both men and women.
Female InfertilityA primary cause of infertility in women involves dif-ficulties with ovulation (CDC, 2016; Mayo Clinic, 2013b). Highlight 2.6 summarizes how age affects a woman’s fertility.
Whether ovulation has occurred can be detected by daily monitoring of a woman’s morning tempera-ture. Basal body temperature charts can be used for this purpose. A woman may experience a slight dip in body temperature on the day before ovulation. Immediately after ovulation, the body temperature rises slightly. There should be “a temperature shift of at least. 4 degrees over a 48-hour period to indicate ovulation” (Fertilityplus, 2010).
Another cause of infertility in women involves blocked fallopian tubes (CDC, 2016). Pelvic inflam-matory disease (PID) is an infection of the female re-productive tract (especially the fallopian tubes) that can cause inflammation and scar tissue that blocks tubes. It often results from STIs such as gonorrhea and chlamydia (both described in Chapter 6). Tu-mors or various congenital abnormalities can also cause blocked tubes.
Other conditions affecting a woman’s fertility include physical abnormalities in the uterine wall and benign fibroid tumors (ASRM, 2012). Endometriosis—the growth of tissue resembling that of the uterine lining outside the uterus, which often results in severe pain—can also cause infertility.
Male InfertilityCommon causes of male infertility are low sperm count and decreased sperm motility (sperm’s ability
to maneuver quickly and vigorously) (CDC, 2016). Another frequent cause of male infertility is a con-dition called varicocele (pronounced VAIR-ih-koh-seel) (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014; NWHIC, 2009). Here the veins on a man’s testicle(s) are enlarged, thereby producing too much heat and affecting sperm production. Numerous conditions can affect sperm count. Age, environmental toxins, declining health conditions, medical problems, smoking, use of drugs or alcohol, use of some medications, and radiation treatment and chemotherapy for cancer have all been blamed as contributors to infertility (NWHIC, 2009).
Couple-Related Causes of InfertilitySometimes infertility results from a mixture of conditions and behaviors shared by a couple. It may involve timing and frequency of intercourse or specific coital techniques used. Occasionally, in-fertility is a consequence of antibodies produced by a woman that attack the man’s sperm (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
Psychological Reactions to InfertilitySome people experience serious reactions to infertil-ity. They may show signs of depression, guilt, depri-vation, frustration, or anger as they pursue infertility counseling. They may feel that their lives are out of their control. In many ways feelings resemble those of grieving, including denial, anger, bargaining, de-pression, and finally, acceptance (Greenberg et al., 2014; Kübler-Ross, 1969).
Especially for those who really desire to have chil-dren, infertility can be associated with failure. Van Den Akker (2001) studied 105 people who were in-fertile and found that three-quarters of them were
aging affects a Woman’s fertilityAs a woman ages, five conditions affect her fertility (American Society for Reproductive Medicine, 2012a; CDC, 2013c):
1. Her ovaries’ ability to release eggs ready for fertilization declines.
2. The number of eggs has decreased.
3. The health of the eggs themselves weakens.4. A woman is more likely to experience other health
problems that negatively affect fertility.
5. Her risk of miscarriage increases.
HIGHLIGHT 2.6
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 87
“devastated” by their infertility “diagnosis” (p. 152). Sixty-four percent of the female respondents and 47 percent of the males indicated happiness was an impossibility without having children. One respon-dent elaborated, “I was angry . . . there isn’t anything else in my life that I’ve worked that hard at really, that I didn’t get . . . I deserved to have succeeded. I didn’t have the energy to do anything else, I just couldn’t do it anymore. But I was really angry. It was like, this isn’t the way it was supposed to end” (p. 131).
An infertility problem is compounded by the fact that even the most intimate partners often don’t feel comfortable talking about their sexuality, let alone that something may be wrong with it. Some men associate their potency with their ability to father children. Traditionally, women have placed great im-portance on their roles as wife and mother. Hope-fully, with the greater flexibility of women’s roles today, the technological advances aimed at improv-ing fertility, and the new options available to infertile couples, the negative psychological reactions to in-fertility will be minimized.
Treatment of InfertilityA wide range of scenarios may reflect individual variations of infertility. One involves listening to the infamous ticking of the biological clock, an example of which Meadows (2004) describes:
Heather Pansera and her husband, Anthony, started trying to have a baby as soon as they got married . . . [A year later] they settled into a new house in Canton, Ohio, with plenty of room to raise a family. One year passed, and Heather, 32, didn’t think much about it. Another year passed and she panicked.
“We were a couple for five years by the time we got married, so we decided to let nature take its course,” she says. “It never crossed our minds that getting pregnant would be so difficult.”
“It seemed like everyone else was having babies,” says Anthony, 39. “I have three brothers and three sisters, and they all had kids. You’re happy for other people, but you want to experience it, too.”
The Panseras decided to pursue fertility treat-ments. After five unsuccessful attempts, Heather fi-nally became pregnant.
Treatment for infertility depends, of course, on the specific problem involved and its seriousness. It
is not necessarily an easy or effective process. It can also be very expensive.
After a year of trying to conceive, both partners should pursue a medical evaluation to help deter-mine whether anything is physically wrong. When a woman is age 35 or older and has been trying un-successfully to get pregnant for six months, or when there is already some indication of a fertility prob-lem, a couple may want to pursue treatment more aggressively before a year is up (see Highlight 2.6).
The first thing to be done in the case of suspected infertility is to bring the matter out into the open. People need to talk about their ideas and feelings. Only then can the various alternatives be identified and a plan of action determined. The couple’s sexual practices concerning pregnancy should also be dis-cussed to make certain they have accurate and spe-cific information.
Assessment of InfertilityThe assessment of infertility usually begins with a general physical examination to evaluate the cou-ple’s overall health; potential physical problems that might be inhibiting fertility are also investigated (ASRM, 2012). Additionally, the couple is asked about their sexual behavior to determine whether it is conducive to conception (ASRM, 2012).
Subsequently, infertility assessment typically in-volves a regimen of tests (Greenberg et al., 2014; NWHIC, 2009). Assessment of the male entails tests that evaluate the number, normality, and mo-bility of sperm. Sometimes hormonal tests are also conducted.
The first step in assessing female infertility usu-ally involves evaluating whether the woman is ovulat-ing each month. This can be done by monitoring her own body temperature fluctuations each day, by using home ovulation test kits that can be purchased over the counter at drug or grocery stores, or by a physi-cian administering blood tests to establish hormone levels or taking ultrasounds of the ovaries. If it is de-termined that the woman is ovulating regularly, addi-tional tests may include X-rays of the fallopian tubes and uterus after injecting dye (hysterosalpingography). The X-ray indicates whether the tubes are open and profiles the shape of the uterus. A laparoscopy may also be performed, in which a thin, tubular instrument is inserted into the body cavity to examine the female reproductive organs directly for any abnormalities.
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8 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Alternative Options for Starting a FamilyAlternatives available to individuals and couples, both infertile and fertile, who want children include adoption, conventional treatment using surgery or drugs, in vitro fertilization, and various forms of as-sisted reproductive technology, all of which are ex-plained in the following sections.
AdoptionAdoption is the legal act of taking in a child born to other parents and formally making that child a full member of the family. To provide a home and family for a child who has none is a viable and beneficial option for infertile couples.
Currently, there is an emphasis on encouraging parents to adopt children with special needs—that is, children who require additional support in the form of medical or financial help for adoptive place-ment; factors involved in special needs may include race, age, being part of a sibling group, or having a physical or mental disability (Barth, 2008). People pursuing the adoption alternative also often seek the adoption of foreign-born children (Barth, 2008; Crosson-Tower, 2013).
Surgery and Fertility DrugsConventional treatments including surgery or drugs are generally used first to treat infertility in 85 to 90 percent of all cases (Greenberg et al., 2014). Microsurgery has been used to correct blocked fallopian tubes, and remove pelvic adhesions and patches of tissue supporting endometriosis; exam-ples of microsurgery for infertile men are vasectomy reversal and repairing varicose veins in the scrotum and testes (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
For women who have problems ovulating, drugs such as Clomid or Seraphine (taken orally), Re-pronex, or Gonal-F (both given by injection) may be prescribed to stimulate ovulation (Mayo Clinic, 2013b). Note, however, that such “fertility drugs” can result in multiple births, which may cause greater problems for both mothers and infants (American Society for Reproductive Medicine, 2012b). Infants may be born prematurely and experience health prob-lems such as breathing difficulties, bleeding blood ves-sels in their brains, low birth weight, and other birth defects. Mothers may have difficulties during preg-nancy including high blood pressure, diabetes, and low blood count (anemia). They may also encounter problems during the delivery of multiple infants.
Unfortunately, drug treatment for male infertility is much less advanced.
Intrauterine InseminationIntrauterine insemination (IUI) (also referred to as artificial insemination [Al]) is the process of “inject-ing the woman with sperm from her partner or a do-nor” (Yarber & Sayad, 2016, p. 378). It tends to be used when the male’s infertility problems are mild or the cause of a couple’s infertility is unknown (CDC, 2013c). During IUI, sperm are deposited directly into the uterus instead of the vagina. This tends to enable pregnancy in cases where sperm have diffi-culty penetrating cervical mucus, as it allows it to by-pass that barrier. Additionally, it gives sperm a head start.
Human sperm can be frozen for up to 10 years, thawed, and then used to impregnate (Carroll, 2013b). For a fee, a sperm bank collects and maintains sperm either for the donors themselves or for nondonors, depending on the arrangement made by the donor.
The sperm used in Al may be the husband’s or partner’s. This procedure might also be used for family planning purposes—for example, a man might deposit his sperm in the bank, then undergo a vasectomy, and later withdraw the sperm to have children. High-risk jobs or onset of a serious ill-ness might prompt a man to make a deposit in case of impending sterility. It is possible to pool several ejaculations from a man with a low sperm count and to inject them simultaneously into the uterus or vag-inal canal.
A second type of artificial insemination is by a donor other than the husband or partner. This prac-tice has been used for several decades to circumvent male infertility and also when the partner is a car-rier of a genetic disease (e.g., a condition such as hemophilia).11
In recent years, an increasing number of single women have requested the services of a sperm bank. A woman requests the general genetic characteris-tics she wants from the father, and the sperm bank then tries to match the request from the information known about its donors. Donors are paid for their sperm and remain anonymous.
11Hemophilia is any of several genetic disorders mostly affecting males in which blood fails to clot normally because of a defective clotting factor. Hemophiliacs must be wary of even slight injuries because these may cause excessive bleeding.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 89
A third type of artificial insemination has re-ceived considerable publicity. Some married couples, in which the wife is infertile, may contract with an-other woman to be artificially inseminated with the husband’s sperm. Under the terms of the contract, this surrogate mother is paid and expected to give the infant to the married couple shortly after birth.
A number of ethical and legal questions have been raised about artificial insemination. Many re-ligious leaders claim that God did not mean for people to reproduce this way. In the case of using an-other donor’s sperm, certain psychological stresses may be placed on partners and on marriages, as the procedure emphasizes the husband’s infertility and involves having a baby that he has not fathered. On a broader dimension, artificial insemination raises such questions as, What are the purposes of mar-riage and of sex? What will happen to male–female relationships if a couple does not even have to see each other to reproduce?
There are other possible legal implications. What happens if the sperm at a bank is not paid for? Would it become the property of the bank? Could it be auctioned off ? If a woman was artificially in-seminated by a donor and the child was later found to have genetic defects, could the parents bring suit against the physician, the donor, or the bank? What about frozen sperm used to inseminate a woman af-ter the donor’s death? Could such children be con-sidered the donor’s heirs?
Ethical Question 2.5
Does a child resulting from artificial insemination by an unknown donor have the right to know who that donor was? What if this knowledge is necessary for some medical reason, such as diagnosing a hereditary disease? What if the donor does not want the child to know who he is?
Assisted Reproductive TechnologyAssisted reproductive technology (ART) involves pro-cedures to promote pregnancy that involve handling both the sperm and the egg (CDC, 2016b). Artificial insemination is not considered ART because the egg
is not manipulated. The results of ART procedures are often referred to as test-tube babies. However, this phrase is inaccurate because ART has nothing to do with a test tube. Earlier, we established that in vitro is Latin for “in glass” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). In vitro fertilization, gamete intrafallopian transfer, zygote intrafallopian transfer, and direct sperm injection are ART procedures discussed in this section.
In Vitro Fertilization In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a process in which eggs are removed from a woman’s body, fertilized with sperm in a laboratory dish, and then implanted in the woman’s uterus. Before egg removal, the woman is given fertility drugs to en-courage multiple egg production. The process can be helpful for women whose fallopian tubes are dam-aged, blocked, or even absent, so that the normal process of fertilization is difficult or impossible.
The first successful IVF procedure took place in Oldham, England, in 1978. Baby Louise, weighing 5 pounds, 12 ounces, was born to her parents Lesley and John Brown. The world was stunned by such a feat. The physicians who developed the technique, Patrick Steptoe and Robert Edwards, had attempted the process more than 30 times before they achieved this first success.
As with artificial insemination, the ethical is-sues, legal complications, and other potential prob-lems with IVF are numerous. For example, a Dutch woman underwent IVF after trying unsuccessfully to conceive for five years. The process was success-ful; twins were born—one black and one white. The University Hospital at Utrecht deemed “the mix-up ‘a deeply regrettable mistake,’ and took responsibil-ity for accidentally fertilizing the woman’s eggs with sperm from a man from Aruba, as well as that of her husband” (American Association of Sex Educators, Counselors, and Therapists [AASECT], 1995).
ART’s effectiveness varies tremendously from couple to couple. As mentioned, variables include the viability of the eggs and sperm, the mother’s age, and the mother’s structural capacity to maintain a pregnancy. Mulrine (2004) describes the situation for some of the most difficult cases who seek help from the Sher Institutes for Reproductive Medicine in Las Vegas:
They have . . . graduated to advanced treatments beyond their wildest calculations. Most of them have already undergone two or more in vitro fertilization
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9 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
attempts with other doctors and some 75 percent of them have traveled from out of state to try again. It is an arduous process, not without its embarrassments. One couple speaks of feeling ridiculous racing through rush-hour traffic to deliver sperm gathered at home to the clinic; another describes an earlier treatment when the doctor, in a lame effort at humor, dressed in a bunny suit on egg retrieval day, in preparation for his “Easter hunt.” (p. 61)
In 2016, model Chrissy Teigen and her husband, singer John Legend, faced criticism when they an-nounced to the world that they had picked the sex of their baby with the use of Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) during in Vitro Fertiliza-tion. The PGD process happens outside of the body. Once the sperm begins to fertilize the eggs (typically on the third day after fertilization starts), an embry-ologist removes cells from the embryo to determine whether the embryo is a male or a female. Following this procedure, only the embryos of the desired gen-der is transferred into the women’s uterus (Center for Human Reproduction, 2015). This can be an expen-sive procedure (approximately $18,000) and one that raises ethical questions (Yarber & Sayad, 2016; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). A similar procedure, Micro-Sort, has already been banned in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration. Concerns have been raised about potential sex imbalances in the world and incidences in which the “non-chosen” sex is born. There is also no long-term research about the impact of these procedures.
Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT) In gamete in-trafallopian transfer (GIFT), collected eggs and sperm are placed directly into a fallopian tube. Resulting embryos can then drift into the uterus. GIFT differs from IVF only where fertilization takes place. In IVF, fertilization occurs in a petri dish; in GIFT, fertiliza-tion occurs in the fallopian tube. All other aspects of the two processes are alike. Both allow natural implantation to take place in the uterus. GIFT can be performed only in those cases in which the fallopian tubes are clear and healthy. It may be used success-fully with women who have endometriosis or when no specific cause for infertility has been identified. GIFT is not useful for women with blocked fallopian tubes, a common cause of female infertility.
Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer (ZIFT) Zygote intra-fallopian transfer (ZIFT) is similar to GIFT. In the ZIFT procedure, eggs and sperm are first combined
in a laboratory dish to form a zygote. The zygote is then immediately transferred to the fallopian tube. An advantage of this technique is that fertilization is known to have taken place, whereas GIFT couples can only hope that it will take place. Natural implan-tation in the uterus can then occur.
Direct Sperm infection (ICSD) In intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSD), or direct sperm injection, a physician, using a microscopic pipette (a narrow tube into which fluid is drawn by suction), injects a single sperm into an egg. The resulting zygote is subsequently placed in the uterus. This technique can be used when the male has a low sperm count or the couple has failed to conceive using traditional in vitro insemination (Rathus et al., 2014). The first successful birth using ICSD occurred late in 1994 (Sparks & Syrop, 2005).
Embr yo Transplants Embryo transplants may be used for women who do not have healthy ova (eggs) themselves, often due to age or ovarian failure (Carroll, 2013b; Rathus et al., 2014). Rathus and his colleagues (2014) explain:
Embryonic transfer can be used with women who do not produce ova of their own. A woman volunteer is artificially inseminated by the male partner of the infertile woman, or by donor sperm. Five days later the embryo is removed from the volunteer and inserted within the uterus of the mother-to-be, where it is hoped that it will become implanted. (p. 299)
Success Rates of ART Note that the effectiveness of ART procedures varies from clinic to clinic. The Fertility Clinic Success Rate and Certification Act of 1992 requires all clinics practicing artificial re-production technology to report their success rates annually to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). The CDC, in turn, publishes an annual report, which details the success rate for each clinic (CDC, 2013g). (Note that success rates usually refer to pregnancy rates per cycle. A cycle involves a two-week period during which ART is undertaken, usually beginning with administration of a fertility drug [CDC, 2005]).
According to the 2013 CDC national summary on ART, the average percentage of ART cycles that led to a successful implantation in the uterus were as follows:
● 39.9 percent in women aged 34 or younger ● 30.8 percent in women aged 35–37
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 91
● 20 percent in women aged 38–40 ● 10.7 percent in women aged 41–42 ● 5.0 percent in women aged 43–44 ● 2.3 percent in women aged 45 or older (CDC,
2016a).
Surrogate MotherhoodThousands of individuals and couples who want children but who are unable to reproduce either be-cause the woman is infertile or due to lack of a part-ner have turned to surrogate motherhood.
A surrogate can give birth to a baby conceived by artificial insemination using the sperm of the hus-band. Or a woman can function as a surrogate with-out using her own genetic material. For example, any egg fertilized using the GIFT or ZIFT process may be transferred to the surrogate mother’s fallopian tube.
On birth, the surrogate mother terminates her pa-rental rights, and the child is legally adopted by the donor(s) of the egg and/or sperm. Agencies sponsor-ing surrogacy stress the need for clearly established contractual agreements. However, various ethical issues are involved in surrogacy, many of which are currently being debated in the courts. Ethical Ques-tions 2.6 addresses some of them.
Ethical Question 2.6
What if the surrogate mother changes her mind shortly before birth or right after birth and decides to keep the baby?
If the child is born with severe mental or physical disabilities, who will care for the child and pay for the expenses? Should it be the surrogate mother, the contracting adoptive couple, or society?
Should the best interests of the resulting children rather than their procreators be taken into account? At some point in the children’s lives, should they be told that they have a surrogate mother somewhere? How might this affect their own psychological well-being?
Acceptance of ChildlessnessFor some infertile couples, accepting childlessness may be the most viable option. Each alternative has both positive and negative consequences that need to be evaluated. The positive aspects of childlessness need to be identified and appreciated. Increasing numbers of people are choosing to remain child-less for various reasons. Not having children allows the time and energy that children would otherwise demand to be devoted to other activities and ac-complishments. These include work, career, and rec-reational activities. A couple might also have more time to spend with each other and invest in their relationship as a couple. Children are expensive and time-consuming.
On the one hand, children can provide great joy and fulfillment. On the other hand, they also can cause problems, stress, and strain. Infertile couples (as well as fertile couples) may benefit from evaluat-ing both sides of the issue.
Highlight 2.7 discusses the effects of macro sys-tems on infertility.
Social Work Roles, Infertility, and EmpowermentSocial workers may assume a number of roles to em-power and help people address infertility: enabler, mediator, educator, broker, analyst/evaluator, and advocate. Social workers can enable people in mak-ing their decisions concerning the options available to infertile people. In cases in which the members of a couple disagree for some reason, a social worker can assume a mediator role to help them come to some compromise or mutually satisfactory deci-sion. The social worker as educator can inform cli-ents about options and procedures with specific and accurate data. The broker role is used to connect clients with the specific resources and infertility pro-cedures they need.
The role of analyst/evaluator might be used to evaluate the relative effectiveness of different fertility clinics and the appropriateness of different assisted reproductive technologies to meet a couple’s or indi-vidual’s needs. As an advocate, a social worker might need to speak on behalf of clients if they are being denied services or if the process for receiving infertil-ity treatment is overly cumbersome or expensive.
Spotlight 2.3 addresses client empowerment by using a feminist perspective on fertility counseling.
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9 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Technological Procedures to Assist in Reproduction
Assisted reproductive technology (ART): procedures to promote pregnancy that involve handling both the sperm and the egg.
Direct sperm injection (intracytoplasmic sperm injection [ICSD]): a process in which a physician, using a microscopic pipette, injects a single sperm into an egg, hopefully resulting in a zygote, which is subsequently placed in the uterus.
Embryo transplant: “a method of conception in which a woman volunteer is artificially inseminated by the male partner of the intended mother, after which the embryo is removed from the volunteer and inserted within the uterus of the intended mother” (Rathus et al., 2014, p. 299).
Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT): a procedure in which collected eggs and sperm
are placed directly into a fallopian tube where fertilization, hopefully, will take place.
In vitro fertilization (IVF): a process in which eggs are removed from a woman’s body, fertilized with a sperm in a laboratory dish, and then implanted in the woman’s uterus.
Intrauterine Insemination (IUI) (Artificial insemination [Al]): the “process of injecting the woman with sperm from her partner or a donor” (yarber & Sayad, 2013, p. 381).
Surrogate motherhood: the procedure in which an egg fertilized using the gift or Zift process is transferred to the fallopian tube of a surrogate mother (a woman who will bear a child for another woman).
Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT): a procedure in which eggs and sperm are first combined in a laboratory dish to form a zygote, which is then transferred immediately to the fallopian tube.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
HIGHLIGHT 2.7
the effects of macro Systems on infertilityUnlike abortion issues, which are fairly well crystallized and articulated, the issues, ethics, and values concerning infertility and reproductive technologies are only now being discovered and defined. Abortion has been available for a long time. However, modern technology has allowed sophisticated means of artificial fertilization to be undertaken for only a few decades. Additionally, new developments are rapidly advancing.
A major issue is that most fertility enhancement techniques are expensive. They may be available, but not to poor people
and the uninsured. Organizations within the community will provide services only if they are paid. Is this fair or appropriate? Should infertile wealthy people be allowed to enjoy such advances when infertile poor people are not? Should these expensive advances be pursued at all in view of the world’s exploding population? Vital philosophical and ethical issues are involved here. Once again, there are no easy answers.
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to:
LO 1 Describe the dynamics of human reproduc-tion (including conception, diagnosis of preg-nancy, fetal development, prenatal influences
and assessment, problem pregnancies, and the birth process).Human reproduction is a complex process involving ovulation, ejaculation, and conception.
Prenatal influences that affect the fetus include the mother’s nutrition, drugs and medication, alcohol usage, smoking habits, age, maternal stress, and other factors such as specific illnesses (e.g., rubella or AIDS) during pregnancy.
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Biological Development in Infancy and Childhood 9 3
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 2.3
a feminist perspective on infertility counseling and empowermentFeminist principles can be applied to counseling women who discover themselves to be infertile (Georgiades & Grieger, 2003; Solomon, 1988). The medical establishment tends to view infertility as a medical problem that needs to be solved, as dysfunctional equipment that needs to be fixed. Social attitudes tend to support this medical view in four basic ways (Georgiades & Grieger, 2003; Solomon, 1988). First, most people in society aren’t aware of the immense impact the crisis of infertility has on a woman. Second, people tend to look down on infertile women as if a woman can’t possibly live a well-rounded, worthwhile life without bearing children. Third, infertile women experience feelings such as denial, anger, and depression, as do people confronted with any serious loss (Carroll, 2013b). Fourth, infertility can pose a major life crisis for a woman (Yarber & Sayad, 2013). People in crisis are generally more vulnerable, more suggestible, and more easily manipulated than they are during more normal times.
A two-pronged approach to infertility treatment is proposed (Solomon, 1988). First, social workers and other helping professionals should address infertility as a very personal issue (Georgiades & Grieger, 2003). Women who are experiencing the crisis of infertility should be treated as people with other crises are treated. A woman needs to be encouraged to identify and express her feelings, even when they hurt, come to accept her situation, and eventually make decisions about how she wants to proceed. Too frequently, infertile women
are told what to do by medical professionals and are led to follow extensive, expensive, complicated, time-consuming procedures that may have little chance of success. It should be acknowledged that the infertile woman is more vulnerable and more likely to respond to medical direction than when she is not experiencing a crisis. Instead, the infertile woman may need specific information about the options available to her, the risks, the amount of effort required to pursue treatment, and help in evaluating which alternative is to her individual best advantage. Each woman needs to evaluate whether she really wants to put forth the amount of effort needed. Infertile women need to be empowered to make their own choices.
The second level involved in a feminist approach concerns the more general social attitudes about women (Hyde, 2008), in this case infertile women and their treatment. Infertile women are stigmatized. They are viewed by society as having something wrong with them, as being incomplete. These attitudes need to be changed. The positive qualities of any life choice need to be emphasized. Women need to recognize their value as individual human beings, not as a failure or success because of their ability or lack of ability to bear children. People as citizens, advocates, and social workers can form pressure groups to encourage more extensive research into the causes and treatment of infertility and to alter the traditional manner in which fertility treatment is done. Women need to be and feel empowered, and to have their choices maximized.
Methods of prenatal assessment include ultrasound sonography, fetal MRI, amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, and maternal blood tests.
Conditions that cause problem pregnancies are ectopic pregnancies, toxemia, and Rh incompatibility. Spontaneous abortions also occur periodically.
Stages in the birth process include initial con-tractions and dilation of the cervix, the actual birth, and afterbirth.
Birth positions include the most common vertex position, breech presentations, and transverse presentations.
Newborn assessment approaches include the Apgar scale and the Brazelton (1973) Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale.
Birth defects include Down syndrome and spina bifida. Other factors affecting development include low birth weight, prematurity, and anoxia.
LO 2 Explain typical developmental milestones for infants and children.Children pass many developmental milestones as they grow older. Typical motor, play, adaptive, so-cial, and language profiles for children at various age levels provide guidelines for assessment, although in-dividual variations must be appreciated.
LO 3 Examine the abortion controversy (in addi-tion to the impacts of social and economic forces).Macro-system policies and the battle between pro-choice and antiabortion forces affect service delivery.
Controversial issues include restricting access through legislation, limiting financial support, condition of the mother, fetal condition, violence against clinics, stem cell research, and intact dilation and extraction (often referred to by opponents as partial-birth abortion).
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94 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Significantly fewer abortions are performed today than in past decades.
Methods of abortion include medication abortion, vacuum aspiration, and dilation and evacuation. Illegal abortions pose significant health risks around the world. Major physical complications from legal abortion are rare.
Women who have had abortions generally experience no serious long-term psychological effects, although the decision to ter minate a pregnancy is often a difficult and complex one. Men may also experience psychological distress following an abortion, a fact that is often ignored.
Proponents and opponents of abortion have developed arguments in support of their respective stances.
Many women face serious ethical dilemmas with respect to unwanted pregnancy. Professional social workers have an obligation to assist pregnant clients in evaluating the various alternatives open to them to empower them to make their own decisions.
LO 4 Explain infertility (including the causes, the psychological reactions to infertility, the treatment of infertility, the assessment process, alternatives available to infertile couples, and social work roles concerning infertility).Almost 11 percent of all U.S. couples are infertile. Leading causes of women’s infertility are difficulties with ovulation, blocked fallopian tubes, and physical abnormalities such as fibroid tumors and endometri-osis. Most male infertility is caused by a low sperm count, decreased sperm motility, and varicocele. Sometimes infertility results from a mixture of con-ditions shared by a couple.
People may suffer serious psychological reactions to infertility.
Treatment of infertility includes fertility drugs, microsurgery, intrauterine insemination (IUI) (also referred to as artificial insemination [AI]), and assisted reproductive technology (ART), which can involve in vitro fertilization (IVF), gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT), zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSD), and embryo transplants. Other alternatives
include surrogate motherhood, adoption, and acceptance of childlessness.
An ethical issue is the cost of treatment, which limits access for those who are not wealthy. Social workers may assume many roles in helping people choose alternatives.
A feminist approach to treating infertile women emphasizes empowerment by dealing with the issue on a personal level and addressing general social attitudes about women and infertility.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and behaviors are discussed in this chapter.
EP6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
EP8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies (all of this chapter).Material on concepts and theories about human behavior and the social environment affecting bio-logical development in infancy and childhood are presented throughout this chapter.
EP1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 50, 71–72, 76, 78, 83–85, 89, 91)Ethical questions are posed.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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95
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3Psychological DeveloPment in infancy anD chilDhooD
“Hey, Barry, wha’d ya get on that spelling test?”“I got an 87. How about you?”“Aw, I got a 79. If I get a C in spelling, my ma will kill me.”“Yeah, Marta got a 100 again. She always ruins it for the rest of us by getting straight A’s.I’m so sick of Ms. Butcherblock comparing us to her.”
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96 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
“I hear Billy flunked again. He’s never going to make it into fifth grade.”“Yeah, Bill’s an okay guy, but he sure isn’t very smart.”“Only ten more minutes to recess. I’m gettin’ out there first and get the best ball.”“Wanna bet? I’ll race ya!”Psychology is defined as the science of mind and behavior. Human psychological devel-opment involves personality, cognition, emotion, and self-concept. Each child develops into a unique entity with individual strengths and weaknesses. At the same time, however, some principles and processes apply to the psychological development of all people. Likewise, virtually everyone is subject to similar psychological feelings and reactions that affect their behavior.
This example portrays two schoolboys discussing their current academic careers. Nu-merous psychological concepts and variables are affecting even this simple interaction. The boys are addressing their own and their peers’ ability to learn and achieve. Learning is easier for some children and more difficult for others. Personality characteristics also come into play. Some children are more dominant and aggressive. Others are more pas-sive. Some young people are more motivated to achieve and win. Others are less inter-ested and enthusiastic. Finally, some children feel good about themselves, and others have poor self-concepts.
A PerspectivePsychological variables interact with biological and social factors to affect an individual’s situation and behavior. Their interaction influences the potential courses of action avail-able to a person at any point in time. This chapter focuses on some of the psychological concepts that critically impact children as they grow up. There are four major thrusts. The first presents a perspective on how personalities develop. The second provides a basic understanding of how children think and learn. The third focuses on emotion, and the fourth on self-concept.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Summarize psychological theories about personality develop-ment (including psychodynamic, neo-Freudian psychoanalytic, behav-ioral, phenomenological, and feminist theories)LO 2 Use critical thinking to evaluate theoryLO 3 Relate human diversity to psychological theoriesLO 4 Examine Piaget’s theory of cognitive developmentLO 5 Review the information-processing conception of cognitive developmentLO 6 Apply Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive developmentLO 7 Explain emotional development (including the development of temperament and attachment)
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 9 7
LO 8 Examine self-concept, self-esteem, and empowermentLO 9 Discuss intelligence and intelligence testingLO 10 Explain cultural biases and IQ testsLO 11 Analyze intellectual disabilities and the importance of empowermentLO 12 Examine learning disabilitiesLO 13 Discuss attention deficit disorder
LO 1 Summarize Psychological Theories About Personality DevelopmentHow many times have you heard someone make statements such as the following: “She has a great personality,” or “He has a personality like a wet dish-rag.” Personality is the complex cluster of mental, emotional, and behavioral characteristics that distin-guish a person as an individual. The term may en-compass a wide array of characteristics that describe a person. For instance, a person may be described as aggressive, dominant, brilliant, or outgoing. Another individual may be characterized as slow, passive, mousy, or boring. Because personality can include such varying dimensions of personal characteristics, explaining its development can be difficult.
This section reviews a number of psychological theories that aim to provide conceptual frameworks for explaining why individual personalities develop as they do. Many more psychological theories ex-ist. Theories addressed in this text were chosen be-cause of their historical significance, widespread use, and relevance to social work assessment and practice. They include psychodynamic theory, neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theory, phenomenological theories, and feminist theories. Behavioral theory is mentioned only briefly here; Chapter 4 covers it extensively within the context of its application to effective parenting. Chapter 7 addresses other psy-chological theories in depth, including those of Erik Erikson and Lawrence Kohlberg, and applies them to adolescence and young adulthood.
The Psychodynamic Conceptual FrameworkSigmund Freud is perhaps the best known of all per-sonality theorists. This section discusses psychody-namic theory in some detail because of its historical
significance. Arlow (1995) explains: “Originating as a method for treating psychoneurotic disorders, psy-choanalysis has come to serve as the foundation for a general theory of psychology. Knowledge derived from the treatment of individual patients has led to insights into art, religion, social organization, child development, and education” (p. 15).
Adler (2006) describes Freud as the
theoretician who explored a vast new realm of the mind, the unconscious: a roiling dungeon of painful memories clamoring to be heard and now and then escaping into awareness by way of dreams, slips of the tongue and mental illness . . . [He was the] philosopher who identified childhood experience, not racial destiny or family fate, as the crucible of character . . . Not many still seek a cure on a psychoanalyst’s couch four days a week, but the vast proliferation of talk therapies—Jungian and Adlerian analyses, cognitive behavioral and psychodynamic therapy—testify to the enduring power of his idea. (p. 43)
Freud’s conception of the mind was two dimen-sional, as indicated in Figure 3.1. One dimension
Conscious
Superego
Id
Preconscious
Unconscious
Repressed barrier
Ego
FIGURE 3.1 Freud’s Conception of the Mind
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9 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of the mind consisted of the conscious, the precon-scious, and the unconscious. Freud thought that the mind was composed of thoughts (ideas), feelings, in-stincts, drives, conflicts, and motives. Most of these elements in the mind were thought to be located in the unconscious or preconscious. Elements in the preconscious area had a fair chance to become con-scious, whereas elements in the unconscious were unlikely to arise to a person’s conscious mind. The small conscious cap at the top of Figure 3.1 indicates Freud’s theory that a person was aware of only a fraction of the total thoughts, drives, conflicts, mo-tives, and feelings in the mind.
The repressed area was a barrier under which dis-turbing material (primarily thoughts and feelings) had been placed by the defense mechanism of repres-sion. Repression is a process in which unacceptable desires, memories, and thoughts are excluded from consciousness by sending the material into the un-conscious under the repressed barrier. Freud thought that once a material has been repressed, it has energy and acts as an unconscious irritant, producing un-wanted emotions and bizarre behavior, such as an-ger, nightmares, hallucinations, and enuresis.
The Id, Superego, and EgoThe second dimension of the mind was composed of the id, superego, and ego. These parts are interrelated and impact the functioning of each other.
The id is the primitive psychic force hidden in the unconscious. It represents the basic needs and drives on which other personality factors are built. The id involves all of the basic instincts that people need to survive. These include hunger, thirst, sex, and self-preservation. The id is governed by the pleasure principle; that is, the instincts within the id seek to be expressed regardless of the consequences. Freud be-lieved that these basic drives, or instincts, involved in the id provide the main energy source for personality development. When the id is deprived of one of its needs, the resulting tension motivates a person to re-lieve the discomfort and satisfy the need. The id’s re-lationship with the ego allows a person to rationally determine a means to fulfill the need.
The ego is the rational component of the mind. It begins to develop, through experience, shortly af-ter birth. The ego controls a person’s thinking and acts as the coordinator of personality. Operating according to the reality principle, the ego evaluates consequences and determines courses of action in a
rational manner. The id indicates to a person what is needed or wanted. The ego then helps the person figure out how to get it.
The third component of this dimension of the mind is the superego, or conscience. Normally de-veloping between the ages of 3 and 5, it consists of the traditional values and mores of society that are interpreted to a child by the parents. The superego’s main function is to determine whether something is right or wrong. When an instinctual demand strives for expression that the superego disapproves of, the superego sends a signal of anxiety as a warning to the ego to prevent the expression of the instinct. The emotion of guilt is said to originate from the super-ego. Without the superego to provide a sense of right and wrong, a person would be completely selfish. That is, a person would use the ego to rationally de-termine a means of getting what the id wanted, re-gardless of the consequences on other people.
An example of how the id, ego, and superego might function together is provided in the case of a 9-year-old girl looking at a hand-carved wooden horse in a store (she adores horses and hopes to own one someday). She has only $26.67 to her name and the wooden horse she craves costs $45.00. Her id, functioning by the pleasure principle, urges her to take the toy horse. Her ego reasons that she could slip the horse under her jacket and race out of the store. Her ego also encourages her to look to see if anyone, especially those “nosy” clerks, are anywhere around. She’s just about to do it when her superego propels itself into action. Clearly reminding her that stealing is wrong, it raises questions such as what her parents would think about her if she were to get caught. They would be terribly disappointed. Maybe she would even be kicked out of Girl Scouts. As a result, the girl gives the toy horse one last lingering look, sighs, and starts on her way home. Her ego has already begun to work on how much lawn mowing she will have to do to earn the money needed to pur-chase the wooden toy horse.
Psychosexual DevelopmentFreud came to realize that many people had sexual conflicts, and he made sexuality a focus of his theories. The term he used for the energy of the id’s biological in-stincts was libido. This energy was primarily conceived as being sexual energy. Freud thought sexuality included physical love, affectionate impulses, self-love, love for parents and children, and friendship associations.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 9 9
Freud further conceptualized that people in their development of personality progressed through five consecutive phases. During any one of the earlier phases, conflicts or disturbances could arise that, if not resolved, could fixate that person in some ways at that particular level of development. According to Freud, the term fixated meant that a person’s personality development was largely, though not completely, halted at a particular stage. In order to develop optimal mental health, an individual would either have to resolve these crises and/or use one of several defense mechanisms. A defense mechanism involves any unconscious attempt to adjust to conditions that are painful. These con-ditions may include anxiety, frustration, or guilt. Defense mechanisms are measures through which a person preserves his or her self-esteem and soft-ens the blow of failure, deprivation, or guilt. Some
of these mechanisms are positive and helpful. Oth-ers only help avoid positive resolution of conflict. Highlight 3.1 defines common defense mechanisms postulated by Freud.
Freud’s phases of psychosexual and personality development include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages.
Oral Stage This phase extends from birth to ap-proximately 18 months. It is called oral because the primary activities of a child are centered around feeding and the organs (mouth, lips, and tongue) as-sociated with that function. Feeding is considered to be an important area of conflict, and a child’s at-tention is focused on receiving and taking. People fixated at this stage were thought to have severe personality disorders, such as schizophrenia or psy-chotic depression.
HIGHLIGHT 3.1
Definitions of common Defense mechanisms Postulated by Psychoanalytic theoryCompensation: struggling to make up for feelings of
inferiority or areas of weakness. For example, a stock market analyst’s intense, aggressive competitiveness might be geared to compensating for internal feelings of inferiority. Or a man who was a weakling as a child might work to become a Mr. Atlas competition bodybuilder as an adult to compensate for his former weakness.
Re p re s s i o n : m e c h a n i s m t h ro u g h wh i c h u n a c c e p t abl e desires, feelings, memories, and thoughts are excluded from consciousness by being sent down deep into the unconscious. For example, you might repress an unpleasant incident, such as a fight with your best friend, by blocking it from your conscious memory.
Sublimation: mechanism whereby consciously unacceptable instinctual demands are channeled into acceptable forms for gratification. For example, aggression can be converted into athletic activity.
Denial: mechanism through which a person escapes psychic pain associated with reality by unconsciously rejecting reality. For example, a mother may persistently deny that her child has died.
Identification: mechanism through which a person takes on the attitudes, behavior, or personal attributes of another person whom he or she had idealized (parent, relative, popular hero, etc.). Reaction for mation:
blocking out “threatening impulses or feelings” by acting out an “opposite behavior”; for example, a mother who resents her children might emphasize how much she loves them and could never live without them (Coon, 2002, p. 413).
Regression: mechanism that involves a person falling back to an earlier phase of development in which he or she felt secure. Some adults when ill, for example, will act more childish and demanding, with the unconscious goal of having others around them give them more care and attention.
Projection: mechanism through which a person unconsciously attributes his or her own unacceptable ideas or impulses to another. For example, a person who has an urge to hurt others may feel that others are trying to hurt him.
Rationalization: mechanism by which an individual, faced with frustration or with criticism of his or her actions, finds justification for them by disguising from him- or herself (as he or she hopes to disguise from others) his or her true motivations. Often, this is accomplished by a series of excuses that are believed by the person. For example, a student who fails an exam may blame it on poor teaching or having long work hours, rather than consciously acknowledging the real reasons—for instance, that she had “partied hardy” the night before.
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10 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Anal Stage Between the ages of 18 months and 3 years, a child’s activities are mainly focused on giving and withholding, primarily connected with retaining and passing feces. Bowel training is an im-portant area of conflict. People fixated at this stage may have such character traits as messiness, stub-bornness, rebelliousness; or they may have a reaction formation and have such opposite traits as being meticulously clean and excessively punctual.
Phallic Stage From ages 3 through 5, the child’s attention shifts to the genitals. Prominent activities are pleasurable sensations from genital stimulation, showing off one’s body, and looking at the bodies of others. Also, a child’s personality becomes more complex during this stage. Although self-centered, the child wants to love and be loved and seeks to be admired. Character traits that are apt to develop from fixation at this stage are pride, promiscuity, and self-hatred.
Boys and girls experience separate complexes dur-ing this stage. Boys encounter an Oedipus complex. This is the dilemma faced by every son at this age when he falls sexually in love with his mother. At the same time, he is antagonistic toward his father, whom he views as a rival for her affections. As the intensity of both these relationships mount, the son increasingly suffers from castration anxiety; that is, he fears his father is going to discover his “affair” with his mother and remove his genitals. Successful resolution of the Oedipus complex occurs through defense mechanisms. A typical resolution is for the son to first repress his feelings of love for his mother and his hostile feelings toward his father. Next, the son has a reaction formation in which he stops view-ing his father negatively, and turns this around and has positive feelings toward his father. The final step is for the son to identify with his father, and thereby seek to take on the attitudes, values, and behavior patterns of his father.
Girls, on the other hand, undergo an Electra com-plex during this phallic stage. Freud believed girls fall sexually in love with their fathers at this age. Mean-while, they also view their mother with antagonism. Because of these relationships, girls also suffer from castration anxiety, but the nature of this anxiety is different from that of boys. Castration anxiety in a girl results from the awareness that she lacks a penis. She then concludes she was castrated in infancy and blames her mother for this. Freud went on to theorize
that because girls believe they have been castrated they come to regard themselves as inferior to boys (i.e., they have penis envy). Therefore, they perceive that their role in life is to be submissive and support-ive of males. Freud did not identify the precise pro-cesses for resolution of the Electra complex in girls.
Latency Stage This stage usually begins at the time when the Oedipus/Electra complexes are re-solved and ends with puberty. The sexual instinct is relatively unaroused during this stage. The child can now be socialized and become involved in the educa-tion process and in learning skills.
Genital Stage This stage, which occurs from pu-berty to death, involves mature sexuality. The person reaching this stage is fully able to love and to work. Again, we see Freud’s emphasis on the work ethic, the idea that hard work is a very important part of life, in addition to being necessary to attaining one’s life goals. This ethic was highly valued in Freud’s time. Freud theorized that personality development was largely completed by the end of puberty, with few changes thereafter.
Psychopathological DevelopmentFreud theorized that disturbances can arise from several sources. One source was traumatic experi-ences that a person’s ego is not able to cope with directly and therefore strives to resolve using such defense mechanisms as repression. Breuer and Freud (1895) provide an example of a woman named Anna O. who developed a psychosomatic paralysis of her right arm. Anna O. was sitting by her father’s bed-side (her father was gravely ill) when she dozed off and had a nightmare that a big black snake was at-tacking her father. She awoke terrified and hastily repressed her thoughts and feelings about this night-mare for fear of alarming her father. During the time she was asleep, her right arm was resting over the back of a chair and became “numb.” Freud theo-rized that the energy connected with the repressed material then took over physiological control of her arm, and a psychological paralysis resulted.
In addition to unresolved traumatic events, Freud thought that internal unconscious processes could also cause disturbances. There was a range of possi-ble sources. An unresolved Electra or Oedipus com-plex could lead to a malformed superego and thus lead a person to have a variety of sexual problems—such as frigidity, promiscuity, sexual dysfunctions,
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 101
excessive sexual fantasies, and nightmares with sexual content. Unresolved internal conflicts (e.g., an unconscious liking and hatred of one’s parents) might cause such behavioral problems as hostile and aggressive behavior and such emotional problems as temper tantrums. Fixations at early stages of devel-opment were another source that largely prevented development at later stages and led the person to dis-play such undesirable personality traits as messiness or stubbornness.
As indicated earlier, the main source of anxiety was thought to be sexual frustrations. Freud thought that anxiety would arise when a sexual instinct sought expression, but was blocked by the ego. If the instinct was not then diverted through defense mech-anisms, the energy connected with sexual instincts was transformed into anxiety.
An obsession (a recurring thought such as a song repeatedly on your mind) and a compulsion (“an act a person feels driven to repeat, often against his or her will,” such as an urge to step on every crack of a sidewalk) were thought to be mechanisms through which a person was working off energy connected with disturbing unconscious material (Coon, 2002, pp. 448–449).
Unconscious processes were thought to be the causes for all types of mental disorders. These un-conscious processes were almost always connected with traumatic experiences, particularly those in childhood.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Psychodynamic TheoryWe have established that critical thinking is “the careful examination and evaluation of beliefs and actions” to establish an independent decision about what is true and what is not (Gibbs & Gambrill, 1999, p. 3). It entails the ability to evaluate carefully the validity of an assumption and even of a so-called fact. Critical thinking can be used concerning almost any issue, condition, statement, or theory, including psychodynamic theory.
Freud was virtually the first to focus on the im-pact of the family on human development. He was also one of the earliest, most positive proponents of good mental health. However, he was a product of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and many of his ideas are subject to serious contempo-rary criticisms.
First, research does not support either the exis-tence of his theoretical constructs or the effective-ness of his therapeutic method. Part of this lack may be due to the abstract nature of his concepts. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to pinpoint the loca-tion and exact nature of the superego.
The second criticism involves the lack of clarity in many of his ideas. For instance, although Freud as-serts that the resolution of a boy’s Oedipus complex results in the formation of the superego, he never clarifies how this occurs. Nor does he ever clearly explain the means by which girls might resolve the Electra complex.
The Electra complex leads us to a third criticism of Freud’s theories. Women never really attain either an equal or a positive status within the theory. Es-sentially, women are left in the disadvantaged posi-tion of feeling perpetual grief at not having a penis, suffering eternal inferiority with respect to men, and being doomed to the everlasting limbo of inability to resolve an Electra complex.
Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytic DevelopmentsSince Freud’s time, many other theorists have modi-fied and expanded on his ideas. These theorists, often referred to as neo-Freudians, or ego psychologists, include Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan, among others. In general, they are more concerned with the ego and the surround-ing social environment than the role of instincts, li-bido, and psychosexual stages, which were central to Freud’s perspective.
Carl Jung, who lived from 1875 to 1961, was a Swiss psychologist originally associated with Freud. He later developed his own approach to psychology, called analytic psychology. Jung thought of the mind as more than merely a summation of an individual’s past experiences. He proposed the idea of an inherited “collective unconscious.” Each person’s individual experiences somehow melded into this collective un-conscious, which was part of all people. He theorized that this gave people a sense of their goals and direc-tions for the future. Jung stressed that people have a religious, mystical component in their unconscious. Jung was fascinated with people’s dreams and the in-terpretation of their meaning. He also minimized the role that sexuality plays in emotional disorders.
Erich Fromm came to the United States from Germany in 1934. Whereas Freud had a primarily
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10 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
biological orientation in his analysis of human be-havior, Fromm had a social orientation. In other words, he hypothesized that people are best under-stood within a social context. He focused on how people interact with others. Individual character traits then evolve from these social interactions. Fromm used psychoanalysis as a tool for under-standing various social and historical processes and the behavior of political leaders.
Alfred Adler was also associated with Freud in his earlier years. After breaking with Freud in 1911 because of his basic rejection of Freud’s libidinal theory, he went on to develop what he called “in-dividual psychology,” which emphasized social in-teraction. Adler saw people as creative, responsible individuals who guide their own growth and devel-opment through interactions with others in their so-cial environment (Mosak & Maniacci, 2011). Adler theorized that each person’s unique striving process or lifestyle “is sometimes self-defeating because of inferiority feelings. The individual with ‘psycho-pathology’ is discouraged rather than sick, and the therapeutic task is to encourage the person to acti-vate his or her social interest and to develop a new lifestyle through relationship, analysis, and action methods” (Mosak & Maniacci, 2011, p. 67). This social interest, an inborn trait, guides each person’s behavior and stresses cooperation with others.
Of all the neo-Freudians, Harry Stack Sullivan, an American psychiatrist who lived from 1892 to 1949, made perhaps some of the most radical devia-tions from Freudian theory. He abandoned many of the basic Freudian concepts and terms. Like Adler, Sullivan emphasized that each individual personal-ity developed on the basis of interpersonal relation-ships. He proposed that people generally have two basic needs, one for security and one for satisfaction. Whenever a conflict arose between these two needs, the result was some form of emotional disturbance. He emphasized that to improve interaction, com-munication problems must be overcome. Sullivan placed “greater emphasis upon developmental child psychology” than did Adler, and proposed six de-velopmental stages ranging from infancy to late adolescence (Mosak, 1995; Mosak & Maniacci, 2011, p. 72).
Neo-Freudians have had a great impact on the way we think about ourselves and on the ways in which we view psychotherapy. However, they have not produced hypotheses that are specific enough to
be tested scientifically. Most of these theorists were psychotherapists and writers focusing on philosoph-ical interest rather than scientists who conducted rigorous research. Therefore, their major usefulness may involve providing ideas and ways to think about human behavior rather than contributing to the sci-entific foundation of psychology.
Behavioral Conceptual FrameworksBehavioral or learning theories differ from many other personality theories in one basic way. Instead of focusing on internal motivations, needs, and per-ceptions, behavioral theories focus on specific ob-servable behaviors.
Behavioral theories state that people learn or ac-quire their behaviors. This learning process follows certain basic principles. For example, behavior can be increased or strengthened by receiving positive reinforcement.
Behavioral theories encompass a vast array of dif-ferent perspectives and applications. However, they all focus on behavior and how it is learned. More re-cently, greater attention has been given to the com-plex nature of social situations and how people react in them (Kazdin, 2008b, 2013; Wilson, 2011). This involves people’s perceptions about different situ-ations and their ability to distinguish between one and another. More credit is given to people’s ability to think, discriminate, and make choices. This per-spective in behavioral theory is frequently called so-cial learning or social behavioral theory. Behavior is seen as occurring within a social context. Chapter 4 discusses social learning theory in depth and applies it to effective parenting. Therefore, it is addressed only briefly here.
Phenomenological Conceptual Frameworks: Carl RogersPhenomenological or self theories of personality fo-cus on particular individuals’ perceptions of the world, and how these individuals feel about these experiences. A person is viewed as having various experiences and developing a personality as a result of these subjective experiences, rather than as being born with a specified personality framework. These theories assert that there are no predetermined pat-terns of personality development. Rather, phenome-nological theories recognize a wider range of options
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 10 3
or possibilities for personality development, depend-ing on the individual’s life experiences. Uniqueness of the individual personality is emphasized. Each in-dividual has a configuration of personal experiences that will produce a personality unlike any other. This is a relatively positive theoretical approach in that it focuses on growth and self-actualization.
One of the best-known self theorists, Carl Rogers, is the founder of person-centered (previously known as client-centered ) therapy, which is based on his self theory.1 One of Rogers’s basic concept is the self, or self-concept. Rogers defines these terms as the “or-ganized, consistent, conceptual gestalt composed of perceptions of the characteristics of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ and the perceptions of the relationships of the ‘I’ or ‘me’ to others and to various aspects of life, together with the values attached to these percep-tions” (Raskin, Rogers, & Witty, 2011; Rogers, 1959, p. 200). In other words, self-concept is a person’s perception of and feelings about him- or herself, in-cluding his or her personality, strengths, weaknesses, and relationships with others. A person is the prod-uct of his or her own experience and how he or she perceives these experiences. Life, therefore, provides a host of opportunities to grow and thrive.
Rogers maintains that there is a natural tendency toward self-actualization—that is, the tendency for every person to develop capacities that serve to maintain or enhance the person (Raskin et al., 2011; Rogers, 1959). People are naturally motivated to-ward becoming fulfilled through new experiences.
In contrast to Freud, who viewed the basic nature of human beings as evil (having immoral, asocial instincts), Rogers views humans as being inherently good. Rogers believes that if a person remains rela-tively free of influence attempts from others, the self-actualization motive will lead to a sociable, co-operative, creative, and self-directed person.
The driving force in personality development is seen by client-centered theorists as the “self-actualization motive,” which seeks to optimally develop a person’s capacities. As an infant grows, the infant’s “self-concept” begins to be formed. The development of the self-concept is highly depen-dent on the individual’s perceptions of his or her
1This material on person-centered therapy was originally adapted from Charles Zastrow, The Practice of Social Work, 3rd ed., 1989, pp. 357–360. © 1989 Wadsworth Publishing Company.
experiences. The person’s perceptions of experiences are influenced by the “need for positive regard” (to be valued by others). The need for positive regard is seen as a universal need in every person (Raskin et al., 2011; Rogers, 1959). Out of the variety of ex-periences of frustration or satisfaction of the need for positive regard, the person develops a “sense of self-regard”—that is, the learned perception of self-worth that is based on the perceived attention and esteem received from others.
Although self-actualization is a natural process as people mature, they often encounter barriers. Ivey, D’ Andrea, Ivey, and Simek-Morgan (2002) intro-duce the dynamics involved:
A critical issue in Rogerian counseling is the discrepancy that often occurs between the real self [the person one actually is] and the ideal self [the person one would like to be]. Individuals need to see themselves as worthy. Often individuals lose sight of what they really are in an effort to attain an idealized image . . . This discrepancy between thought and reality, between self-perception and others’ perceptions, or between self and experience leads to incongruities. These incongruities in turn result in areas in which individuals are not truly themselves . . . The objective of therapy . . . is to resolve the discrepancies between ideal and real self, thus eliminating the tension and substituting forward-moving self-actualization. (pp. 248–249) (emphasis added)
One type of barrier to self-actualization involves a child’s introjection (taking on) of others’ values that are inconsistent with his or her self-actualizing motive. The introjection of values inconsistent with one’s self-actualizing motive results in conditions of worth—a person’s perceptions that he or she is only valuable when behaving as others expect and prefer him or her to act. A person, then, is only worthy (of value) under the condition that he or she behaves as expected. Good and Beitman (2006, p. 30) explain:
[Emotional and intellectual] growth is interfered with by conditions of worth outside of their awareness. Specifically, as children grow up and seek positive regard from others, they experience conflicts between their inner wishes and those of their caregivers. Children gradually internalize their caregivers’ appraisals of them, thereby developing conditions of worth (beliefs like “I am worthy when
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10 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
I do what others expect of me”). However, these conditions of worth occasionally are incongruous with people’s true inner selves. Hence, conflicts and discrepancies develop between people’s conscious, introjected values (taken in from others as one’s own) and their unconscious genuine values. As an example, a child growing up in a racist-homophobic community may experience criticism if he or she does not reflect the views of those around [him or her] . . .The child may introject . . . the discriminatory views of others as his/her own, even though such views conflict with his/her unconscious appreciation of diverse people.
Another example of incongruence involves a child who introjects values from her parents that sex is dirty or that dancing is bad. When that child reaches adolescence, she may feel morally righteous and view herself as being a value setter for refusing to dance or date. This reflects her ideal self, the person she would like to be. However, she may then experience that peers relate to her as being a prude with ar-chaic values. Although her introjected values forbid her from dancing or dating, her real self may have a strong desire to participate. Incongruence occurs when a discrepancy exists between a person’s ideal self and real self, or self-concept and experience, re-sulting in tension, anxiety, and internal confusion.
An individual responds to incongruence between aspects of self and experiences in a variety of ways. One way is to use various defense mechanisms. A per-son may deny that experiences are in conflict with his or her self-concept. Or the person may distort or ratio-nalize the experiences so that they are perceived as be-ing consistent with his or her self-concept. If a person is unable to reduce the inconsistency through such de-fense mechanisms, the person is forced to face the fact that incongruences exist between self and experiences. This leads the person to feel unwanted emotions (such as anxiety, tension, depression, guilt, or shame) and potentially experience psychological maladjustment.
An individual then might enter therapy to resolve these problems and incongruences.
The therapist’s role is best characterized as non-directive. Therapists create a permissive, nonthreat-ening atmosphere in which clients feel accepted and feel free to explore their defenses and the incongru-ences between self and experiences. If growth is to occur, each person must assume responsibility for their actions, decisions, and behavior. Significant
and enduring change must be self-initiated. There-fore, complete responsibility for the direction of treatment rests with the client. Client-centered ther-apists do not bring up subjects to discuss, give ad-vice, make interpretations, or provide suggestions. Client-centered therapists believe that a person’s self-actualization motive best knows what courses of action they should take, and therefore client-centered therapy focuses on helping the client gain insight into inconsistent values and then allowing the self-actualizing processes to determine future directions.
Eysenck (1965) reviewed outcome studies con-ducted on the effectiveness of contemporary psycho-therapy approaches, including that of client-centered therapy. The results are not encouraging for client-centered therapy because the studies of this ap-proach fail to demonstrate that clients receiving this therapy improve at a higher rate than control groups of people with similar problems.
Why these rather discouraging results? It would seem that even though developing a helping rela-tionship and helping clients gain insight into their problems are essential parts of counseling, these el-ements do not constitute the total healing process. Clients need to understand the nature and causes of their problems, but they also need to know what courses of action they can take to resolve the prob-lem. Client-centered therapists do not inform cli-ents of available resolution strategies, because they believe it is the clients’ responsibility to figure this out for themselves. Many therapists, such as Glasser (1965), point out the importance of having the coun-selor suggest various alternatives, of helping clients explore the merits and consequences of these alter-natives, and then having clients make commitments (contracts) to try one of these alternatives.
Feminist Conceptual FrameworksFeminist theories are based on the con-cept of feminism and the basic themes involved in that definition. Feminism is the “doctrine advocating social, po-litical, and economic rights for women equal to those of men” and the “move-ment for the attainment of such rights”
(Nichols, 1999, p. 483). They are included here with other theories of personality development because they provide a context for women’s development and experience throughout the life span.
EP 2a EP 2c
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 10 5
Hyde and Else-Quest (2013) remark on the devel-opment of feminist theories:
Feminist theories were created by no single person. Instead, numerous writers have contributed their ideas, consistent with the desire of feminists to avoid power hierarchies and not to have a single person become the sole authority. But it also means that the feminist perspective . . . has been drawn from many sources. (p. 50)
Because of the multiple origins and ongoing na-ture inherent in their development, we refer to femi-nist theories instead of feminist theory. At least nine principles underlie these approaches.
First, feminist theories emphasize the “elimina-tion of false dichotomies” (Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986, p. 4). That is, people should critically evalu-ate the way thought and behavioral expectations are structured within the culture. Western culture em-phasizes separating people, things, and events into mutually exclusive categories. For example, people are classified as either male or female on the basis of biology. These categories are “viewed as mutu-ally exclusive entities that should be manifest for one gender but not the other. Distinctions between the sexes, rather than commonalities, are emphasized” (Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986, p. 4). A traditional Western view stresses that men and women should have different traits such as women being emotional, social caregivers and men being strong, working,
decision makers. In contrast, a feminist perspective emphasizes acknowledging and appreciating a bal-ance of these traits for each male or female as an individual.
A second principle underlying feminist theories is “rethinking knowledge” (Hunter College Women’s Studies Collective, 1995, p. 63). In some ways, this is related to the first principle because they both in-volve how people think and view the world. Rethink-ing knowledge involves critically evaluating not only how you think about something, but also what you think about. It involves which ideas and thoughts are considered to reflect “facts” and which are thought to have value. Consider the following point:
Not only have topics of interest to women, but of less interest to men, such as rape, the sexual abuse of children, employment patterns among women, or the histories of women’s lives, been simply left out of traditional disciplines, but the very concepts and assumptions with which inquiry has proceeded have reflected a male rather than a universal point of view. (The Hunter College Women’s Studies Collective, 1995, p. 63)
A third dimension characterizing feminist theories is the recognition that differences exist in male and female experiences throughout the life span (Hyde, 2008; Land, 1995). One aspect of this dimension is the feminist focus on the impact of gender-role so-cialization. A gender role is the cluster of “culturally
Client-Centered Therapy
Ideal self: the person one would like to be.
Conditions of worth: a person’s perception that he or she is only valuable when behaving as others expect and prefer him or her to act (only worthy under certain conditions).
Incongruence: a discrepancy between a person’s ideal self and real self, or self-concept and experience, resulting in tension, anxiety, and internal confusion.
Need for positive regard: the need to be valued by others.
Psychological maladjustment: the condition in which a person experiences significant incongruence
between self and experiences, resulting in emotional and psychological problems.
Real self: the person one actually is.Self-actualization: the tendency for every person to
develop capacities that serve to maintain or enhance the person.
Self-concept: a person’s perception of and feelings about him- or herself, including his or her personality, strengths and weaknesses, and relationships with others.
Sense of self-regard: the learned perception of self-worth that is based on the perceived attention and esteem received from others.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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10 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
defined expectations that define how people of one gender ought to behave” (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014, p. 592). Socialization is the developmental process of teaching members of a culture the appropriate and expected pattern of values and behavior. Hyde and Else-Quest (2013) elaborate:
From their earliest years, children are socialized to conform to these roles . . . Essentially, gender roles tell children that there are certain things they may not do, whether telling a girl that she cannot be a physicist or a boy that he cannot be a nurse. Because gender roles shut off individual potential and aspirations, feminists believe that we would be better off without such roles or at least they need to be radically revised. (p. 52)
Gilligan’s (1982) work on the moral development of women, described in Chapter 7, provides a good example of work focusing on gender-related differ-ences in life experience. Her proposed sequence of levels and transitions differ significantly from the traditional stages of moral development proposed by Kohlberg (1963, 1968, 1969, 1981a, 1981b), argu-ing that the latter relate primarily to the experience of men.
A fourth principle inherent in feminist theories is egalitarianism, a philosophy that people should be treated equally as individuals without focusing on gender (Hyde, 2008). This approach diverges from the traditional emphasis on hierarchies of power, where some (historically, men) have greater power and con-trol over others. An egalitarian perspective is demo-cratic, emphasizing the use of consensus building, collaboration, and the sharing of tasks (Hyde, 2008).
The fifth feminist principle, closely related to that of ending patriarchy, is that of empowerment (Hyde, 2008; Land, 1995; Netting & O’Connor, 2003), de-fined as the “process of increasing personal, interper-sonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations” (Gutierrez, 2001, p. 210). A feminist perspective emphasizes the need to empower women, enhance their potential for self-determination, and expand opportunities. Means of empowerment include assertiveness train-ing, enhancing self-esteem, improving communica-tion and problem-solving skills, and learning conflict resolution and negotiating skills (Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986).
A sixth concept underlying feminist theories is that of “valuing process equally with product” (Hyde,
2008; Van Den Bergh & Cooper, 1986, p. 6). It is not only important what you get done, but how you get it done. A traditional patriarchal approach stresses the importance of the end result. For example, the fact that a male chief executive officer of a large oil company has amassed amazing wealth is considered significant. The traditional view would not con-sider how he had hoarded his wealth as significant (by ruthlessly stepping on competitors, breaking environmental regulations, and consistently mak-ing decisions on his own, not the employees’ nor the public’s, best interests). Feminist theories focus on decision making based on equality and participation by all. The concept of “having power over” others is irrelevant. Thus, feminist theories focus on aspects of process such as making certain all participants have the chance to speak and be heard, adhering to principles of ethical behavior, working toward agree-ment or consensus, and considering personal issues as important.
A seventh underlying principle in feminist theo-ries is the idea that “the personal is political” (Bricker-Jenkins & Lockett, 1995, p. 2531; GlenMaye, 1998; Hyde, 2008). Personal experience is integrally inter-twined with the social and political environment. Sexism is “prejudice or discrimination based on sex, especially discrimination against women” that involves “behavior, conditions, or attitudes that fos-ter stereotypes of social roles based on sex” (Mish, 2008, p. 1141). Feminist theories maintain that sex-ism is the result of the social and political structure. It does not simply involve problems experienced by isolated individuals.
Another implication of this principle is that the political environment can be changed and improved by personal actions. Thus, personal experience can be used to alter the political environment, which in turn can improve the personal experience. For exam-ple, individual women can collectively campaign for a candidate who supports women’s issues, thus ap-plying their personal actions to the political arena. As a result, the candidate gets elected and seeks to improve her supporters’ work environments and ac-cess to resources, a political result that affects wom-en’s personal lives.
An eighth feminist principle involves unity and diversity (Bricker-Jenkins & Hooyman, 1986; Bricker-Jenkins & Lockett, 1995; Hyde, 2008). Women working together can achieve a better qual-ity of life for all. In order to remain unified, women
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 107
must appreciate each other’s differences. Diversity is viewed as a source of strength.
A ninth dimension inherent in feminist theories is the importance of advocating for positive change on women’s behalf (Hyde, 2008). Feminist theo-ries go beyond the simple recognition of inequi-ties in cultural expectations, individual rights, and
options. Feminist frameworks stress the impor-tance of making structural and attitudinal changes to attain equality and enhance opportunity for everyone.
Spotlight 3.1 discusses the diversity of feminist theories that vary in their relative emphasis on these nine concepts.
Diversity in feminismHyde and Else-Quest (2013) categorize five major approaches among feminist theorists. These include liberal feminism, cultural feminism, Marxist or socialist feminism, radical feminism, and postmodern feminism. Note, however, that these categories are presented only to stimulate your thinking about these issues. In reality, each individual has his or her own views that may involve some blend of these and many other perspectives.
Liberal Feminism“Liberal feminism holds that women should have opportunities and rights equal to those of men” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 53). This is a relatively optimistic view that American society is founded on a sound basis of positive values including “justice and freedom for all” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 53). However, liberal feminism also acknowledges that injustice on the basis of gender does indeed exist for women. Therefore, there should be an ongoing pursuit of legal, social, and educational change that pursues real equality for women. The National Organization for Women (NOW) generally reflects a liberal feminist perspective.
Some of the issues that have been addressed by liberal feminism include pay inequities in the workplace (e.g., women earn significantly less than men), gender segregation (e.g., women tend to be clustered in lower-paying occupations and men in higher ones), and hitting the glass ceiling (i.e., a barrier involving psychological perception and decision making by those in power that prevents women from progressing higher in a power structure just because they are women). Another issue liberal feminism speaks to is the role of men and women in family caregiving (Lorber, 2010). If men and women are equal, to what extent do they and should they assume equal responsibilities in that arena?
Cultural Feminism“Cultural feminism argues that women have special, unique qualities that differentiate them from men” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 53). This contrasts with liberal feminism, which views women and men as being essentially the same because
they’re both human beings. Cultural feminism emphasizes placing greater importance on the positive qualities typically manifested by women, including “nurturing, connectedness, and intuition” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 53). The ongoing goal is to achieve equal but different respect, power, and appreciation.
Marxist or Socialist Feminism“Marxist or socialist feminism . . . views the oppression of women as just one instance of oppression,” women being downgraded as one of various classes of people devalued by a capitalistic society (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, pp. 53–54). Such devaluation serves those in power well. For example, consider the significant difference in wages typically earned by women and men (discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 9). “What would happen to the average American corporation if it had to start paying all of its secretaries as much as plumbers earn? (Both jobs require a high school education and a certain amount of manual dexterity and specific skills)” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 54). Marxist feminism seeks a total transformation of the current capitalist system such that wealth would be spread much more equally across classes, including women and other oppressed populations.
Marxist feminism contends that there are “two solutions to women’s exploitation in capitalism: wages for housework and government subsidization of wives and children” (Lorber, 2010, p. 48). This calls for women working in the home to be paid for that work because it is work, just as others are paid for working outside the home (Lorber, 2010).
Radical FeminismRadical feminism perceives “liberal feminism and cultural feminism as entirely too optimistic about the sources of women’s oppression and the changes needed to end it” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 54). From this perspective, “men’s control” over women “manifests itself in gender roles, family relationships, heterosexuality, and male violence against women, as well as the wider male-dominated world of work, government, religion, and law . . . For radical feminists,
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.1
(continued)
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10 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
women’s liberation requires the eradication of patriarchy and the creation of women-centered ways of living” (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2010, p. 12). “Collective political and social action [is] . . . essential. Given the difficulty of changing social institutions, radical feminists sometimes advocate separatist communities in which women can come together to pursue their work free of men’s oppression” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 54).
Postmodern Feminism“Postmodern feminism is not focused on social action, but rather is an academic movement that seeks to reform thought and research within colleges and universities” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 54). “It is particularly concerned with the issue of epistemology, which is the question of how people—whether lay-people or scientists—know. How do we know about truth and reality?” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 54). “Postmodern feminism claims that gender and sexuality are performances, and that individuals modify their displays of masculinity and femininity to suit their own purposes. Males can masquerade as women, and females can pass for men. Postmodern feminism argues that, like clothing, sexuality and gender can be put on, taken off, and transformed” (Lorber, 2010, p. 195).
Lorber (2010) explains:
Postmodern feminism examines the ways societies create beliefs about gender at any time (now and in the past) with discourses embedded in cultural representations or texts. Not just art, literature, and the mass media, but anything produced by a social group, including newspapers, political pronouncements, and religious liturgy, is a text. A text’s discourse is what it says, does not say, and hints at (sometimes called a subtext). The historical and social context and the material conditions under which a text is produced become part of the text’s discourse. If a movie or newspaper is produced in a time of conservative values or under a repressive political regime, its discourse is going to be different from what is produced during times of openness or social change. Who provides the money, who does the creative work, and who oversees the managerial side all influence what a text conveys to its audience. The projected audience also shapes any text, although the actual audience may read quite different meanings from those intended by the producers. Deconstruction is the process of teasing out all these aspects of a text. (pp. 268–269)
Deconstruction can be applied to any set of beliefs. In a way, it is a form of critical thinking. Deconstruction involves analysis of underlying meanings and assumptions when presented with an occurrence, trend, or so-called fact. It focuses on not how the phenomenon is objectively represented
or portrayed, but rather on subjective interpretation within the phenomenon’s social, political, and economic context.
Lorber (2010) continues:
Soap operas and romance novels are “read” by women . . . action films and war novels are the stuff of men’s spectator-ship. Postmodern feminism deconstructs cultural representations of gender, as seen in movies, video, TV, popular music, advertising— whether aimed at adults, teenagers, or children—as well as paintings, operas, theater productions, ballet, and the Olympics. These are all discourses that overtly and subliminally tell us something about female and male bodies, sexual desire, and gender roles. A romantic song about the man who got away glorifies heterosexuality . . . These discourses influence the way we think about our world, without questioning the underlying assumptions about gender and sexuality. They encourage approved-of choices about work, marriage, and having children by showing them as normal and rewarding and by showing what is disapproved of as leading to a “bad end.”
By unpacking the covert as well as more obvious meanings of texts, postmodern deconstruction reveals their messages. We can then accept or reject them, or use them for our own purposes. The memoirs and the life histories of transgendered people, and the activities of gay men and lesbian women, as depicted in the media, create a different discourse. (p. 269)
Diversity and IntersectionalityStill another perspective on feminism questions the usefulness of clustering all women together. To what extent are the issues faced by lesbians, white women, and women of color the same or different? Some have criticized various feminist perspectives for giving lesser priorities to the issues confronting female groups other than white women (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Lorber, 2010). Newer trends in feminist research and thinking involve a broader perspective on the human condition (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Lorber, 2010). Examining “women and men across different racial ethnic groups, social classes, religions, nationalities, residencies, [and] occupations” reflects a trend of the future (Lorber, 2010, p. 306).
The concept of intersectionality applies here. Intersectionality is “the idea that people are complex and can belong to multiple, overlapping diverse groups” (Kirst-Ashman, 2013, p. 67). “The intersectional perspective acknowledges the breadth of human experiences, instead of conceptualizing social relations and identities separately in terms of either race or class or gender or age or sexual orientation”; rather, an intersectional approach focuses on the “interactive effects” of belonging to multiple groups (Murphy, Hunt, Zajicek, Norris, & Hamilton, 2009, p. 2). “Race, class, and gender are inseparable determinants of
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.1 (continued)
(continued)
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 10 9
inequalities” that interconnect to generate numerous aspects of oppression; the resulting great burden of oppression can affect interpersonal relationships, people’s rights, how people are treated, and how they go about their daily lives (Murphy et al., 2009, p. 7). For example, “the meaning of womanhood for a middle-class, middle-age, African American woman is different than that held by a working-class, older, White woman” (Murphy et al., 2009, p. 10). (Intersectionality is addressed further in Chapter 5.)
The Feminist FutureThe special needs of women and the issues they face must continue to be addressed. The issues, gender roles, and cultural expectations for women of color merit ongoing attention (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013). Additionally, more awareness, research, and concentrated effort should focus “on adjustment problems in women, particularly on depression, anxiety, alcoholism, and eating disorders, because they can be so devastating. We need to know what causes depression and what can be done to prevent it (e.g., changing child-rearing practices, school policy, violence against women, or family roles)” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 358).
The development of feminist theories is anything but stagnant. There is a dynamic, rapidly growing body of re s e a rc h a n d i d e a s t h at fo c u s o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f understanding women’s gender roles, issues, qualities, and oppression. (Chapter 9 addresses women’s needs and issues in much greater depth.)
Ethical Question 3.1
EP 1
What are your views about the various approaches to feminism? What is the fair way to treat women and men? What kinds of efforts, if any, do you think should be undertaken to improve current conditions?
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.1 (continued)
Feminist Identity DevelopmentHow do people become feminists? One study focused on students enrolled in women’s studies courses, which are, of course, feminist based. Attending such classes tends to modify the attitudes and perceptions of both women and men, although perhaps more significantly for women. Five steps in the development of a feminist identity emerged for women (Bargad & Hyde, 1991; Hyde, 2002; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, pp. 358–359):
1. Passive acceptance. During this stage, women simply don’t think critically about gender issues or oppression. They passively accept that the way things are is the way they should be.
2. Revelation. This stage is characterized by the “Aha!” experience that yes, indeed, inequities do exist between women and men. A woman begins to confront issues and think more deeply about oppression. Common reactions during this stage include heated anger and resentment toward men.
3. Embeddedness. At this stage a woman becomes emotionally linked with other women, and re-ceives support and sustenance from them. She begins to feel stronger in her identity as a woman.
4. Synthesis. Now a woman begins to assume a “positive feminist identity” that goes beyond focusing on gender-role differences. She gains greater understanding of herself as a woman and no longer resents men. Rather, she assesses her re-lationships with men as individuals.
5. Active commitment. During this stage, a woman’s feminist identity is firmly established. She uses her confidence to advocate on behalf of women to ad-dress inequities, oppression, and women’s issues.
Critical Thinking About the Relevance of Theory to Social WorkWe have reviewed a number of psychological theo-ries about human behavior that can help us better understand how people function. This section exam-ines how theories are relevant to social work prac-tice, and Highlight 3.2 proposes an approach for evaluating theory.
In Chapter 1, we defined the term theory (or conceptual framework) as a coherent group of prin-ciples, concepts, and ideas organized to explain some observable occurrence or trend. In effect,
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110 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 2 Use critical thinking to evaluate theoryThe Evaluation of TheoryThere are many ways to evaluate theory. This is partly because theories can concern virtually anything from the best method of planting a garden to whether intelligent extraterrestrials. Four major approaches for evaluating theory are provided here. The approaches are applied to various theories throughout the text and are not necessarily presented in the order of importance. Different theories may require different orders and emphases in terms of how they can best be evaluated.
1. Evaluate the theory’s application to client situations. In what ways is the theory relevant to social work? In what ways does the theory provide a means to help us think about our clients and how to help them? For example, a theory about the mating patterns of gorillas would probably be very difficult to apply to any practice situation. However, a theory that hypothesizes how interpersonal attraction occurs between people might help you to work with an extremely shy, lonely young adult with serious interpersonal problems.
2. Evaluate the research supporting the theory. Research often involves singular, obscure, or puzzling findings. Such findings may be vague and may or may not be true. For example, the sample of people studied in a particular research project may have been extremely small. Thus, results may have been due primarily to chance. Or the sample may not have resembled the entire population very well. Therefore, the results should be applied only to the sample studied and not to anything or anybody else. (Consider this a commercial for why you need to take a research course!) On the one hand, it’s important to be cautious about assuming that any research study establishes a fact. On the other hand, when more and more studies continue to support each other, a fact (or as close as we can come to a fact) may begin to develop.
A student once complained to me about her textbook. She said that the author confused her by presenting “facts”—in reality, research findings—that were contradictory. She said she hated such contradictions and wanted the author to tell her what was or was not a fact. My response was that I didn’t think the world was like that. It cannot be so clearly divided, even though it sometimes seems that it would be more convenient that way. Facts are the closest estimation of the truth we can come to based on the limited information we have. For example, people believed that the world was flat until somebody discovered that it was round. They believed that the northern lights were reflections of sunlight off the polar ice cap until someone discovered that they are really the effect of solar radiation on the earth’s ionosphere.
Research can help establish whether theories portray facts or not. In other words, research can help determine how accurate and useful any particular theory is. We need theories to guide our thinking and our work so that we may undertake research-informed practice.
However, there are at least two problems with evaluating research in support of a theory. First, you might not have access to all, most, or any of the relevant research. Research findings (which often are interpreted as facts) can be found in thousands of journals. Second, there may be no research specifically directed at finding the specific facts you need to help you verify a theory in your own mind.
3. Evaluate the extent to which the theory coincides with social work values and ethics. Does the theory involve an underlying assumption that coincides with the mission of social work. According to the National Association of Social Workers’ (NASW) Code of Ethics, “the primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty” (NASW, 2008).
One example of how a theory can support or contradict professional ethics involves the ethical standard that social workers must be “sensitive to cultural and ethnic diversity and strive to end discrimination, oppression, poverty, and other forms of social injustice” (NASW, 2008). Consider a theory that one group of people is by nature more intelligent than another group. This theory obviously conflicts with professional values. Therefore, it should not be used or supported by social workers.
Another example is the theory that women are too emotional, flighty, and lacking in intellectual capability to vote or hold a political office. This theory was espoused by the powerful majority of men who held public office until 1920, when women finally won the right to vote after a long, drawn-out battle for this right. This theory, too, stands in direct opposition to professional values and ethics.
Another section discusses the importance of being sensitive to human diversity when examining psychological theories. It also introduces several concepts that are useful in that process.
4. Evaluate the existence and validity of other comparable theories. Are there other theories that adhere better to the first three evaluation criteria? If so, which theory or theories should be chosen to guide our assessments and practice?
(continued)
HIGHLIGHT 3.2
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 111
theory provides a way for people to view the world. It helps them sort out and make sense of what they see. Likewise, it aids them in understanding how and why things are the way they are and work the way they do. Different theories provide us with different explanations.
For instance, consider the differences between systems theory and the medical model in trying to explain the reasons for human behavior. From the 1920s to the 1960s, social work programs used a med-ical model approach to human behavior. The medical model, developed by Sigmund Freud, views clients as “patients.” The task of the social worker providing services is to first diagnose the causes of a patient’s problems and then provide treatment. The patient’s problems are viewed as being inside the patient.
The medical model conceptualizes emotional and behavioral problems as “mental illnesses.” People with such problems are given medical labels such as schizophrenic, psychotic, bipolar, or insane. Ad-herents of the medical approach believe the dis-turbed person’s mind is affected by some generally unknown, internal condition, thought to be due to a variety of possible causative factors inside the person. These include genetic endowment, meta-bolic disorders, infectious diseases, internal con-flicts, unconscious uses of defense mechanisms, and traumatic early experiences that cause emotional fixations and prevent future psychological growth.
In the 1960s, social work began questioning the usefulness of the medical model. Environmental
factors were shown to be at least as important as internal factors in causing a client’s problems. Also, research demonstrated that psychoanalysis was probably ineffective in treating clients’ problems (Stuart, 1970). Social work shifted at least some of its emphasis to a reform approach. A reform ap-proach seeks to change systems to benefit clients. Antipoverty programs such as Head Start2 and Job Corps3 are examples of efforts to change systems to benefit clients.
In the past several decades, social work has in-creasingly focused on using a systems approach to viewing clients and the world surrounding them. This approach integrates both treatment and re-form by emphasizing the dysfunctional transac-tions between people and their physical and social environments. Human beings are viewed as being in constant interaction with other micro, mezzo, and macro systems within their social environment.
Social workers started to explore both causes and solutions in the environment encompassing any individual client instead of blaming the client. For instance, consider a person who is unemployed and
2Head Start is a program providing preschoolers with “recreational, educational, and health programs” throughout the year (Jansson, 2009, p. 298).3Job Corps is a federal program created to recruit impoverished youth from disadvantaged urban and rural communities and provide them with job training (Jansson, 2009).
The medical model and systems theory were compared earlier. The social work profession now subscribes to systems theory, which provides a better perspective for respecting people’s dignity and rights and for targeting the macro environment in order to effect change, reduce oppression, and improve social conditions.
Sometimes, two or more theories will have basic similarities. Recall the discussion concerning the differences between systems theory and the ecological model in Chapter 1. Both approaches provide frameworks for how to analyze the world and what to emphasize. Many of the concepts they employ are similar or identical. It was concluded that the ecological model is an offshoot of systems theory. This text assumes a systems theory perspective, yet adopts some ecological concepts.
For instance, the term system is used in both. Both social environment and coping are ecological terms. Thus, many times it may be determined that a combination of theories provides the best framework for viewing the world within a social work context. Each social worker needs to determine the theoretical framework or combination of frameworks best suited for his or her practice context.
At other times, no theory will be perfectly applicable. Perhaps you will decide that only one or two concepts make any sense to you in terms of working with clients. The quest for the perfect theory resembles the pursuit of the perfect fact. It’s very difficult to achieve perfection. Thus, when evaluating theories, be flexible. Decide which concepts in any particular theory have the most relevance to you and your work with clients.
HIGHLIGHT 3.2 (continued)
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112 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
poverty stricken. A social worker assuming a sys-tems perspective would assess the client in situation. This worker would assess not only the problems and abilities of the client but also the client’s interactions with the multiple systems affecting him or her. What services are available to help the person develop needed job skills? What housing is available in the meantime? What aspects of the macro systems in the environment are contributing to the high unemploy-ment and poverty rates? What services need to be de-veloped in order to respond to these needs?
In contrast, the medical model might orient a worker to try to cure or “fix” the individual by pro-viding counseling to help him or her develop a bet-ter attitude toward finding a job. There would be an
underlying assumption that it was the individual mi-cro system that was somehow at fault.
Thus, theory helps social workers decide how to go about helping people. The medical model versus systems theory is only one example. Throughout this text, a broad range of theories will be presented concerning various aspects of human development and behavior. Evaluation of their relevance will often be provided. You, as a future social worker, will be expected to learn how to evaluate theories for yourself in order to apply them to your practice situations. Highlight 3.2 provides some suggestions for how to do this. Spotlight 3.2 stresses the impor-tance of being sensitive to diversity when evaluating theories.
LO 3 Relate human Diversity to Psychological theoriesPsychological theories of development often focus on prescribed stages through which people progress throughout their lives. Such theories are also oriented to expectations about what is normal and what is abnormal during each stage. An issue facing us as we evaluate psychological theories is the rigidity with which some attempt to structure human
development. In reality, people experience different worlds as they progress through their lives and time. We have established that their experiences are altered by many aspects of diversity and the intersectionality of factors. Such factors include “age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status” (CSWE, 2015).
A woman will experience life differently than a man because of variables related to being a woman. An American of Asian background will encounter different treatment and issues than will an American of Northern European origin moving through the same time. Thus, it is critically important to be sensitive to the vast differences people can experience because of their membership in certain groups or other characteristics.
For decades, social work has been moving to view clients and the world from a less rigid, more open-minded perspective that is sensitive to diversity and individual differences. The field has worked “to encompass new perspectives on women’s development and roles and the unique experiences, characteristics, strengths, and coping strategies of African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and other people of color and
of other oppressed groups such as gay men and lesbians,” in addition to incorporating principles such as empowerment (Goldstein, 2008). It is up to us as social workers to be sensitive to people’s varying perspectives and needs. We must not make value judgments based on rigid assumptions about how people are supposed to behave. Rather, we must maintain flexibility thinking about human behavior and nurture our appreciation of differences.
People’s progress through life involves much more than distinct, predefined periods tied and limited to a person’s age and development. Rather, we should view life stages and circumstances as the result of integral interaction with many aspects of the environment. Various transitional points are experienced differently depending on an individual’s life context as characterized by the many variables described earlier (Devore & Schlesinger, 1999). The life course may be divided into seven transitional points—entry, childhood, adolescence, emerging adulthood, adulthood, later adulthood, and old age (Devore & Schlesinger, 1999, pp. 68–69). Persons with divergent characteristics and backgrounds can experience these transitional points in distinctly different ways.
For example, during the childhood transitional period, children’s psychological profiles are shaped by the ideas of their parents and of other people around them. This social context, in turn, is the product of culture. Berk (2012a) provides an example:
Culture influences emotional self-regulation. In a striking illustration, researchers studied children in two collectivist [that emphasizes the importance of group well-being above that of the individual] subcultures in
EP 2aEP 2c
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.2
(continued)
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 113
rural Nepal. In response to stories about emotionally charged situations (such as peer aggression or unjust parental punishment), Hindu children more often said they would feel angry but would try to mask their feelings. Buddhist children, in contrast, interpreted the situation so that they felt OK, rather than angry. “Why be angry?” they explained. “The event already happened.” In line with this difference, Hindu mothers reported that they often teach their children how to control their emotional behavior, whereas Buddhist mothers pointed to the value their religion places on a calm, peaceful disposition (Cole & Tamang 1998; Cole, Tamang, & Shrestha, 2006). Compared to both Nepalese groups, U.S. children preferred conveying anger verbally in these situations; for example, to an unjust punishment, they answered, “If I say I’m angry, he’ll stop hurting me!” (Cole, Bruschi, & Tamang, 2002). Notice how this response fits with the Western individualistic emphasis on personal rights and self-expression. (p. 491)
Other examples of life-course differences involve the adolescent transitional period. Adolescents raised in different cultural environments with different experiences and treatment view their developing life, gender roles, and sexuality in very diverse ways. A female Puerto Rican adolescent learns her expected role by closely observing her mother and caring for the family’s children; however, there often is no mention of sex (Devore & Schlesinger, 1999). Kelly (2008) comments on Japanese adolescent sexuality:
In Japan, sexuality has been minimized and regulated as being tangential to the performance of responsible duty. Japanese youth consider chastity very important. There is less teenage sexual activity and far less single motherhood than in the United States, although abortion is quite accessible. Japanese youth often rush into sexual activity during late adolescence, as if making up for their more chaste earlier years. As the age of marriage becomes even later, the rate of premarital pregnancies and “shotgun” weddings has been increasing. (p. 159)
The transitional period of emerging adulthood provides more examples of diverse life course experiences. Young people experience this as a time of decision making about marrying or remaining single and pursuing a work or career path. Devore and Schlesinger (1999) remark:
For young Jewish women . . . [t]he plan to work c o n t i n u e s a t ra d i t i o n e s t a bl i s h e d l o n g a go by grandmothers and mothers whose diverse occupations were important to the survival of the family. Jewish tradition more easily accepts employment of women. In the present, however, the emerging Jewish woman has choice. The Jewish value of education is traditional but in the past was more reserved for men. Women
now attend college in equal numbers with men but may experience conflict as they make the choice. “As a young Jewish woman I am achievement oriented, committed to individual achievement, accomplishment and career—but, I am equally committed to marriage. What then of my children? If I am to be a responsible mother then I must remain at home with my young children.” . . . Such is the ethnic dilemma shared by Italians and Slavic young women.
A young married Navajo woman expects to hold to the traditions of the past. Her husband is the formal head of the household, but she has as much, or perhaps even more, influence in the family management due to a reverence for matrilineal descent [heritage based on the female line]. This tradition provides her with support from the extended family, with her brothers assuming responsibility in the teaching and discipline of their nieces and nephews. Women and men, sisters and brothers participate in the retention of the ethnic reality. (pp. 77–78)
The important point here is the need for sensitivity to diversity when evaluating human behavior, regardless of which theory you apply.
Other concepts are also helpful when examining and evaluating psychological theories and their application to diverse populations. They include worldview (Choudhuri, Santiago-Rivera, & Garrett, 2012; Diller, 2015; Lum, 2007), spirituality (Canda, 2008; Canda & Furman, 2010; Cunningham, 2012), and the strengths perspective (Kim, 2008; Saleebey, 2013).
WorldviewA concept helpful for appreciating diversity when applying psychological theory to behavior is the worldview perspective. Worldview concerns people’s perceptions of the world around them and how they fit into that world. Perceptions include awareness of the surrounding environment, social status, social roles, legal rights, and economic status, among the many other variables characterizing people’s lives. Not only do worldviews consist of “our attitudes, values, opinions, and concepts, but they also affect how we think, define events, make decisions, and behave” (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 294).
Understanding that people have different worldviews involves looking beyond the narrow boundaries of our daily existence. It means developing an openness and awareness of life in other neighborhoods, counties, states, and countries. It also requires developing an appreciation of differences instead of fear and aversion. It encourages us to allow new perceptions of the world to penetrate our
EP 2.1.1b, 2.1.1e, 2.1.5c
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.2 (continued)
(continued)
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114 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
consciousness instead of clinging doggedly to what we already know. There are many other ways to live than the way we are accustomed to.
Sue and Sue (2008) reflect:
Fo r m a rg i n a l i ze d g ro u p s i n A m e r i c a , a s t ro n g determinant of worldviews is very much related to the subordinate position assigned to them in society. Helping professionals who hold a worldview different from that of their clients, and who are unaware of the basis for this difference, are most likely to impute negative traits to clients. In most cases, for example, clients of color are more likely to have worldviews that differ from those of therapists [and social workers]. Yet many therapists [and social workers] are so culturally unaware that they respond according to their own conditioned values, assumptions, and perspectives of reality without regard
for other views. Without this awareness, counselors [and social workers] who work with culturally diverse groups may be engaging in cultural oppression. (p. 294)
SpiritualityA second concept important in understanding human diversity and psychological development is spirituality. Spirituality “includes one’s values, beliefs, mission, awareness, subjectivity, experience, sense of purpose and direction, and a kind of striving toward something greater than oneself ” (Frame, 2003, p. 3). The spiritual domain is an important means by which many people organize their view of the world. The spiritual dimension is part of their reality. Therefore, it must be considered when you assess human behavior from a psychological perspective even though you may have very different beliefs concerning spirituality than your clients or your colleagues.
Spiritual beliefs can provide people with hope, support, and guidance as they progress through life. Spirituality, including Fowler’s (1981) seven stages of faith, will be discussed further in Chapter 7. Chapter 15 explores spirituality and some of the major religions.
The Strengths PerspectiveThe strengths perspective is a third concept that is useful in increasing sensitivity to human diversity, and understanding people from various ethnic and cultural backgrounds. Chapter 1 introduced the concepts of empowerment and strengths-based social work practice. Norman (2005) explains:
Strengths-based social work practice focuses on helping client systems tap into the strengths within them . . . Potential strengths include cultural values and traditions, resources, coping strategies, family, friends, and community support networks. Past successful experiences need to be linked to solving current problems . . . The client is the expert in identifying past success and in developing solutions based on past experiences. Focusing on concrete tasks and objectives . . . works better for people of color than more abstract methods. . .
Even when we are talking the same language, our perceptions of an interaction are culturally influenced . . . D i f fe re n t g ro u p s o f p e o p l e t ra n s l a t e n o nve r b a l communication, such as spatial observance, handshaking, and eye contact, in different ways . . . Mastering cross-cultural communication is the key to effective practice with individuals, families, groups, and communities of color. This requires sharpening observation and listening skills as well as learning about clients’ cultural beliefs and traditions. (pp. 403, 407)
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.2 (continued)
The African American worldview is characterized by a strong achievement and work orientation.
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EP 2.1.10e
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 115
LO 4 Examine Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentSpecific theories and conceptual frameworks con-cerning how people develop their capacities to think and understand have also been developed. Cognition involves the ability to take in information, process it, store it, and finally retrieve and use it. In other words, cognition involves the ability to learn and to think. The most noted of the cognitive theorists is probably Jean Piaget. Piaget (1952) proposed that people go through various stages in learning how to think as they develop from infancy into adulthood. His the-ory, which concerns the stages through which people must progress in order to develop their cognitive or thinking ability, was derived from careful observa-tions of his own children’s growth and development.
Piaget postulates that virtually all people learn how to think in the same way. That is, as people develop they all go through various stages of how they think. In infancy and early childhood, thinking is very basic and concrete. As children grow, thinking progresses and becomes more complex and abstract. Each stage of cognitive development is characterized by certain principles or ways in which an individual thinks.
The following example does an exceptionally good job of illustrating how these changes occur. In his studies, Piaget would show children of various ages two glass containers filled with a liquid. The containers were identical in size and shape, and held an equal amount of liquid (see Figure 3.2). Children inevitably would agree that each container held the same amount of liquid. Piaget then would take the liquid from one of the containers and pour it into another taller, narrower glass container. Interest-ingly enough, he found that children under age 6 would frequently say that the taller glass held more even though the amount of liquid in each was identi-cal. Children approximately age 6 or older, however, would state that despite the different shapes, both containers held the same amount of liquid. Later studies established that the results of this experiment were the same for children of various backgrounds and nationalities.
This example demonstrated how children in differ-ent cognitive stages thought about or conceptualized the problem. Younger children tended to rely directly on their visual perceptions to make a decision about which glass held more or less liquid. Older children, however, were able to do more logical thinking about
the problem. They thought about how liquid could take various forms and how the same amount could look different depending on its container. The older children illustrated a higher, more abstract level of cognitive development. This particular concept in-volving the idea that a substance can be changed in one way (e.g., shape) while remaining the same in an-other (e.g., amount) is called conservation.
These ways of thinking about and organiz-ing ideas and concepts depending on one’s level of cognitive development are called schema. A person perceives the world at an increasingly more abstract
Children under age 6 would say that the taller glass holds more, even though the amount of liquid in each is identical.
FIGURE 3.2 Conservation
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116 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
level during each stage. In other words, different as-pects of the environment are emphasized depending on a person’s cognitive level of development.
Piaget hypothesizes that all people go through the cognitive stages in the same order. An individual progresses through them in a continuous manner. In other words, a child does not wake up one morn-ing and suddenly state, “Aha, I’m now in the preop-erational stage of development!” Rather, children gradually progress through each stage with smooth and continual transitions from one stage to the next. Each stage acts as a foundation or prerequisite for the next. Three other concepts that are also important are adaptation, assimilation, and accommodation.
Adaptation refers to the capacity to adjust to sur-rounding environmental conditions. It involves the process of changing in order to fit in and survive in the surrounding environment. Piaget would say that adaptation is composed of two processes, assimila-tion and accommodation.
Assimilation refers to the taking in of new infor-mation and the resulting integration into the schema or structure of thought. In other words, when a per-son is exposed to a new situation, event, or piece of information, not only is the information received and thought about at a conscious level, but it is also integrated into a way of thinking. The information is stored in such a way that it can be used later in problem-solving situations.
For example, go back to the situation in which young children observe and judge the quantities of liquid in glass containers. Younger children, those under age 6, assimilate information at a level using only their observations. Items and substances are only as they appear before their eyes. These children could not think of items as changing, as being some-where else, or as being in a different context. They could not yet assimilate such information using higher, more logical levels of thought in which some qualities of a substance can change while others re-main the same. Children of age 6 or older can think about substances or items that are not immediately before their eyes. They can think about other differ-ent circumstances and situations.
Accommodation refers to the process by which children change their perceptions and actions in order to think using higher, more abstract levels of cognition. Children assimilate (take in) new informa-tion and eventually accommodate it. That is, they build on the schema they already have and use new,
more complex ways of thinking. Children age 6 or older have accommodated the information about the liquid-filled glass containers. Furthermore, they can think about changes in substance in a more abstract way. They can think of the liquid not only as being held in a container of a specific shape and size, but also as it may be held in other containers of other shapes and sizes.
Piaget describes four major stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor period, the preop-erational thought period, the period of concrete op-erations, and the period of formal operations. Each stage will be described next.
The Sensorimotor PeriodThe sensorimotor period extends from birth to ap-proximately 2 years of age. During this period, a child progresses from simple thoughtless reflex reac-tions to a basic understanding of the environment. Three major accomplishments are made during the sensorimotor period. First, children learn that they have various senses through which they can receive information. Additionally, they begin to understand that they can receive different kinds of sensory in-formation about the same object in the environment.
For example, initially an infant may see and hear her parents squabbling over who will take the new Ford Mustang GT with air-conditioning on a 99-degree summer day and who will take the old Ford Escort in which the air-conditioning doesn’t work. Even though she will hear and see them squabbling, she will not be able to associate the two types of sensory information as referring to the same aspect of her environment—namely, her parents. By the end of the sensorimotor period, she will un-derstand that she can both hear and see her parents at the same time. She will perceive their interaction through both modes of sensory input.
A second major accomplishment during the sen-sorimotor period is the exhibition of goal-directed behavior. Instead of displaying simple responses randomly, the child will purposefully put together several behaviors in order to accomplish a simple goal. For example, a child will reach for a piece of a wooden puzzle and try to place it into its appropriate slot. The child will plan to put the puzzle together. However, because a child’s thinking during the sen-sorimotor period is still very concrete, the ability to plan very far ahead is extremely limited.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 117
The third major accomplishment during the sen-sorimotor period is the understanding that objects are permanent. This is the idea that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight and out of hearing range. The concept of object permanence is the most important schema acquired during the sensorimotor period. Initially, children immediately forget about objects as soon as they no longer can perceive them. By age 2, children are generally able to think about the image of something that they can’t see or hear, and can solve a simple problem in relationship to that image. Children begin to use representation—the visual imagining of an image in their minds—which allows them to begin solving problems.
For example, take 2-year-old Ricky who is very attached to his “blanky,” an ancient, ragged, yellow blanket that he loves dearly. Ricky is in the midst of playing with his action garage toy set with his blanky placed snugly next to him. Ricky’s mother casually walks into the room, gently picks up the blanky, and walks down the hallway to the bedroom. Instead of forgetting about the blanky as soon as it’s out of sight, Ricky immediately gets up and starts actively seeking out his blanky, calling for it relentlessly. Even though he can’t presently see it and he doesn’t know exactly where his mother put it, Ricky is able to think of the blanky and begin a quest in search of it. Furthermore, he is able to run around the house and look for it in various nooks and crannies, think-ing about where it might be.
The Preoperational Thought PeriodPiaget’s second stage of cognitive development, the preoperational thought period, extends from approxi-mately ages 2 to 7. Some overlap from one stage to another should be expected. A child’s thinking con-tinues to progress to a more abstract, logical level. Although children are still tied to their physical and perceptual experiences, their ability to remember things and to solve problems continues to grow.
During the preoperational stage, children begin to use symbolic representations for things in their environment. Children are no longer bound to ac-tual concrete perception. They can think in terms of symbols or mental representations of objects or circumstances.
Words provide an excellent example of symbolic representation. Children may symbolize an object or
situation with words and then reflect on the object or situation later by using the words. In other words, language can be used for thought even when objects and situations are not present.
Barriers to the Development of Logical ThinkingDespite children’s progress toward more abstract thinking, three major obstacles to logical thinking exist during the preoperational period: egocentrism, centration, and irreversibility.
Egocentrism In egocentrism, a child is unable to see things from anybody else’s point of view. The child is aware only of himself or herself; the needs and perspectives of others don’t exist.
Piaget illustrated this concept by showing a child a doll in a three-dimensional scene. With the child remaining in the same position, the doll could be moved around the scene so that the child could ob-serve it from different perspectives. The child would then be shown various pictures and asked what the scene would look like from the doll’s perspective or point of view. Piaget found that the child would often choose the wrong picture. The child would continue to view the scene from his or her own per-spective. It was difficult if not impossible for the child to imagine that the doll’s perspective or point of view could be any different from the child’s own.
Centration Centration refers to a child’s tendency to concentrate on only one detail of an object or sit-uation and ignore all other aspects.
To illustrate centration, refer back to the example in which a child is asked to evaluate the amounts of liquid in two glasses. The child would observe the same amount of liquid being poured into two dif-ferent shaped containers. One container was short and squat, and the other, tall and thin. When asked which container held more liquid, the child would frequently answer that the tall, thin container did. In this situation, the child was focusing on the concept of height instead of width. She was unable to focus on both height and width at the same time. Only one aspect of the situation was used to solve the prob-lem. This is a good example of how centration inhib-its more mature, logical thought.
Irreversibility Irreversibility refers to a child’s abil-ity to follow and think something through in one direction without being able to imagine the relation-ship in reverse. For example, 4-year-old Gary might
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118 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
be asked, “Who are your cousins?” Gary might then reply, “Sherrie, Donna, Lorrie, and Tanya.” If Gary is then asked who is Sherrie’s cousin, he will probably say he doesn’t know. Gary is able to think through a situation in one direction, but is unable to reverse his train of thought. He knows that Sherrie is his cousin. However, he is unable to see the reverse of that relationship—that he is also Sherrie’s cousin.
Developing Cognitive AbilityDespite barriers to the development of logical thought, several concepts illustrate ways in which children progress in their ability to think. Major changes concerning these concepts occur between the onset of the preoperational thought period and the culmination of adult logical thinking. Children gradually improve their perceptions and grasp of these concepts.
Classification Classification refers to a child’s abil-ity to sort items into various categories according to certain characteristics. The characteristics might include shape, color, texture, or size. Children gradu-ally develop the ability to distinguish differences be-tween objects and categorize them to reflect these differences.
For example, 2½-year-old Kwan is given a bag of red, blue, and green “creepy crawlers.” In this case, the creepy crawlers consist of soft, plastic lizards, all of which are the same size and shape. When asked to put all the red lizards together in a heap, Kwan is unable to do so. She cannot yet discriminate be-tween the colors in order to categorize or classify the lizards according to their color. However, when Kwan is given the same task at age 7, she is easily able to put the red, blue, and green lizards into their respective heaps. She has acquired the concept of classification.
Seriation Seriation refers to a child’s ability to ar-range objects in order according to certain charac-teristics. These characteristics might include size, weight, volume, or length.
For example, a child is given a number of soda straws cut to various lengths. The child’s ability to arrange such objects from shortest to longest im-proves as the child’s cognitive ability develops. By age 4 or 5, a child is usually able to select both the longest and the shortest straws. However, the child still has difficulty discriminating among the middle lengths. By age 5 or 6, the child will probably be
able to order the straws one by one from shortest to longest. However, this would probably be done with much concentration and some degree of diffi-culty. By age 7, the task of ordering the straws would probably be much easier.
The ability to apply seriation to various charac-teristics develops at different ages depending on a specific characteristic. For example, children are usually unable to order a series of objects according to weight until age 9. Seriation according to volume is typically not possible until approximately age 12.
Conservation Conservation, discussed earlier, re-fers to a child’s ability to grasp the idea that while one aspect of a substance (e.g., quantity or weight) remains the same, another aspect of that same sub-stance (e.g., shape or position) can be changed.
For example, 4-year-old Bart is given two wads of Silly Putty of exactly equal volume. One wad is then rolled into a ball, and the other is patted into the shape of a pancake. When asked which wad has a greater among of material in it, Bart is likely to say that the pancake does. Even though Bart ini-tially saw that the two wads were exactly equal, he focused on only the one aspect of area. In terms of area alone, the pancake appeared to Bart as if it had more substance. However, by the time Bart reached age 6 or 7, he would probably be able to state that both wads had equal substance. He would know that matter can take different forms and still have the same amount of material.
As with sedation, children achieve the ability to understand conservation at different ages depend-ing on the characteristic to be conserved (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). For example, whereas conservation of substance is typically attained by age 7 or 8, conser-vation of weight is usually not achieved until age 9 or 10, and conservation of volume not until age 11 or 12.
The Period of Concrete OperationsThe period of concrete operations extends from ap-proximately age 7 to 11 or 12 years. During this stage, a child develops the ability to think logically at a concrete level. In other words, a child has mas-tered the major impediments to logical thinking that were evident during earlier stages of cognitive development.
The child now develops the capacity to see things from other people’s points of view. Understanding and empathy are substantially increased during this period.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 119
More complex thinking is developed. Situations and events can be viewed and examined in terms of many variables. The child gradually becomes less limited by centration. A child is no longer limited to solving a problem in terms of only one variable; rather, a number of variables can be taken into ac-count. In the glass example, the child would begin to think in terms of height, volume, substance, and shape all at the same time.
A child also develops the ability to conceptual-ize in terms of reversibility during this period. Re-lationships begin to be understood from various perspectives. Returning to an example presented ear-lier, Gary would now understand that not only was Sherrie his cousin, but also that he was her cousin.
The concepts of classification, seriation, and con-servation would also be mastered. During the period of concrete operations, a child gains much flexibility in thinking about situations and events. Events are appraised from many different points of view.
Additionally, children develop their use of sym-bols to represent events in the real world. Their abil-ity to understand math and to express themselves through language greatly improves. Correspond-ingly, their memories become sharper.
Despite the great gains in cognitive development made during the stage of concrete operations, a child is still somewhat limited. Although events are viewed from many perspectives, these perspectives are still tied to concrete issues. Children think about things they can see, hear, smell, or touch. Their focus is on thinking about things instead of ideas. Children must enter the final stage of cognitive development, the period of formal operations, before they can fully develop their cognitive capability.
The Period of Formal OperationsThe final stage of cognitive development is the pe-riod of formal operations. This period, beginning at approximately age 11 or 12 and extending to ap-proximately age 16, characterizes cognitive develop-ment during adolescence. Technically, this chapter addresses childhood and not adolescence. However, for the purposes of continuity, Piaget’s fourth period of cognitive development will be discussed here.
Abstract thought reaches its culmination during the period of formal operations. Children become capable of taking numerous variables into consider-ation and creatively formulating abstract hypotheses
about how things work or about why things are the way they are. Instead of being limited to thought about how things are, children begin to think about how things could be. They begin to analyze why things aren’t always as they should be.
For example, Meredy, age 10, is still limited by the more concrete type of thinking that character-izes the period of concrete operations. She is aware that a nuclear bomb was dropped on Hiroshima near the close of World War II. When asked about why this happened, she might say that the United States had to defend its own territory and this was a means of bringing the war to an end. She can con-ceptualize the situation and analyze it in terms of some variables. In this case, the variables might in-clude the fact that the United States was at war and had to take actions to win that war. Her ability to think through the situation might extend no further than that. When asked the same question at age 15, Meredy might have quite a different answer. She might talk about what a difficult decision such a step must have been in view of the tremendous cost in human life. She might describe the incident as one of the various tactical strategies that might have been taken. She also might elaborate on the political fall-out of the event. In other words, Meredy’s ability to consider multiple dimensions when assessing an idea or event would improve drastically during the period of formal operations.
Three major developments, then, characterize ad-olescent thought. First, the adolescent is able to iden-tify numerous variables that affect a situation—an issue can be viewed from many perspectives. Second, the adolescent can analyze the effects of one variable on another—that is, can hypothesize about relation-ships and think about changing conditions. Third, an adolescent is capable of hypothetical-deductive reasoning. In other words, an adolescent can sys-tematically and logically evaluate many possible relationships in order to arrive at a conclusion. Vari-ous possibilities can be scrutinized in a conditional “if–then” fashion. For instance, the adolescent might begin thinking in terms of: if certain conditions exist, then certain consequences will follow.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Piaget’s TheoryCriticisms of Piaget’s theory have addressed his gen-eral approach and also raised questions about spe-cific concepts. One general criticism is that the vast
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12 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
majority of his suppositions are based on his ob-servations of his own children rather than on scien-tific studies conducted under laboratory conditions. Questions have been raised about the manner in which he observed and interviewed his children, the language he used to obtain information from them, and personal biases that may have emerged. His findings were primarily based on only three subjects, his own children, instead of on a variety of subjects from different backgrounds.
A second general criticism involves the fact that Piaget focuses on the “average” child. Questions can be raised regarding who the average child really is. Cultural, socioeconomic, and ethnic differences were not taken into account.
Consideration of only limited dimensions of hu-man development poses yet a third general criticism. Little is said of personality or emotional growth ex-cept in specific instances where they relate directly to cognitive development. The effects of social inter-action are virtually ignored. Piaget concentrates on how children see and think of objects instead of the people closest to them.
Piaget (1972) has offered several responses to these criticisms. First, an individual’s social environ-ment may influence cognitive development. Persons from deprived environments may not be offered the types of stimulation and support necessary to achieve high levels of cognition. Second, individual differences might have to be taken into account. Some persons might not have the necessary ability to attain the levels of thought that characterize the formal operations period. Finally, even if a person develops a capacity for formal operational thought, this capacity may not be versatile in its application to all problems. In other words, some individuals might be unable to use formal operations with some problems or in some situations.
Questions have also been raised regarding the meaning and appropriate age level attributed to some of Piaget’s specific concepts (Steinberg, Borstein, Vandell, & Rook, 2011a). He appears to have erred by underestimating children’s abilities concerning various conceptual achievements. Some research replicates Piaget’s in terms of principle. However, by simplifying the language used to communicate with children and by using words and concepts with which they are familiar, other researchers have found higher levels of performance at a given age. In other words, sometimes when children can relate better to
the experiment, they better understand what is ex-pected from them and thus can perform better.
For example, consider research that involves ob-ject permanence, the concept that objects continue to exist even when they’re out of sight. According to Piaget, children don’t attain this skill until nearing age 2, at the end of the sensorimotor period. How-ever, Baillargeon (1987) cleverly adapted his experi-mental procedure to eliminate the need for infants to have a higher level of muscular coordination than is developmentally possible at their age in order to re-spond appropriately. He found that by 4½ months, and sometimes by age 3½ months, babies indicated that they were aware of object permanence.
Piaget’s examination of egocentricity has also re-ceived some criticism. Egocentrism involves the con-cept that a child is unable to see things from anyone else’s perspective but his own.
The idea that children in this age group are so self-centered may be overly harsh. Many parents can think of instances in which their young children appeared to show genuine empathic ability. For ex-ample, 4-year-old Johnnie approaches his father af-ter finding a robin’s egg that fell from the nest. He states, “Daddy, poor birdie. She lost her baby.”
Additionally, there is some evidence that children are not quite as egocentric as Piaget initially claimed and that their thinking is much more complex (Dacey, Travers, & Fiore, 2009; Papalia & Martorell, 2015). A child’s ability to empathize with others de-pends somewhat on the circumstances and the issues involved. For example, children living in families that encourage discussion of feelings are more adept at recognizing other people’s emotions.
Piaget initially investigated egocentricity by hav-ing children observe three fabricated “mountains” of unequal heights placed on a table. Children were able to walk around the table and look at the moun-tains from various perspectives. They were then asked to sit on a chair at the table. A doll was placed in a chair on the opposite side of the table. The chil-dren were then shown a variety of photographs of the “mountains,” which illustrated how they looked from a number of perspectives. Piaget asked the children to select the picture that best showed how the mountains looked from where the doll sat. Chil-dren in the preoperational stage would choose the picture that best showed the mountains from where they themselves sat, not from where the doll sat. Piaget concluded, then, that the children had not yet
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 121
worked through the barrier of egocentrism because they couldn’t comprehend the view of the mountains from the doll’s perspective.
When a variation of the mountain task was used, the results were quite different (Hughes, 1975; Papalia & Feldman, 2012). Instead of “mountains,” a child was seated in front of a square table with di-viders on the top to divide it into four equal sectors. The researcher placed a doll in one of the sectors and a police officer figure in another sector. The child was then asked if she thought the police officer could see the doll from where he stood. The task was then complicated by placing another police officer figure somewhere on the table. The researcher then asked the child to place the doll somewhere on the table where she thought neither police officer could see her. Of 30 children aged 3½ to 5 years, 90 percent responded correctly. Most of these young children could clearly see the situation from another’s per-spective. These results differ significantly from Piaget’s. Perhaps children had trouble understand-ing the concept of fake “mountains” on a table, with which they were unfamiliar. On the other hand, per-haps children could better relate to and understand the concepts of police officers and dolls, both of which were familiar to them.
These and other studies indicate that the cognitive development of children is a very complicated pro-cess, perhaps much more so than Piaget could guess. It’s interesting to note that a major thrust of these more recent studies is to emphasize what young chil-dren can do rather than what they cannot do.
Regardless of the various criticisms, Piaget must be given great credit. Decades ago, he provided us with a foundation for thinking about cognitive devel-opment and has tremendously influenced research in this area. Additionally, he set the stage for establish-ing appropriate expectations regarding what types of things children at various age levels can realistically accomplish.
LO 5 Review the Information-Processing Conception of Cognitive DevelopmentA newer perspective on cognitive development in-volves the information-processing approach. This conceptual framework focuses on the processes an
individual uses to think and solve problems. It relates human thought to how computers function with both hardware and software. Kail and Cavanaugh (2014) explain:
Information-processing theorists draw heavily on how computers work to explain thinking and how it develops through childhood and adolescence. Just as computers consist of both hardware (disk drives, central processing unit, etc.) and software (the programs they run), information-processing theory proposes that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental software. Mental hardware refers to [physical] cognitive structures . . . [that allow thought to take place and memories to be stored.] Mental software includes organized sets of cognitive processes [mental “programs”] that enable people to complete specific tasks, such as reading a sentence, playing a video game, or hitting a baseball. For example, an information-processing psychologist would say that, for a student to do well on an exam, she must encode the information as she studies, store it in memory, and then retrieve the necessary information during the test.
According to information-processing psychologists, developmental changes in thinking reflect better mental hardware and mental software in older children and adolescents than in younger children. For example, older children typically solve math word problems better than younger children because they have greater memory capacity to store the facts in the problem and because their methods for performing arithmetic operations are more efficient. (p. 12) (emphasis in original)
Three facets of information processing that are especially significant include attention, memory, and information-processing strategies (Kail & Cavana-ugh, 2016; Rathus, 2014a).
AttentionAttention is “a process that determines which sen-sory information receives additional cognitive pro-cessing” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 131). As children mature, they develop the ability to focus on the more relevant aspects of a situation or prob-lem and “screen out distractions” (Rathus, 2014a, p. 385). This involves selectively directing their atten-tion. Eventually, children can attend to numerous facets of a problem at the same time, thus allowing
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12 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
them to solve more difficult problems and think at a more complex level. Rathus (2014a) provides an ex-ample of selective attention developing as children get older:
An experiment by Strutt and colleagues (1975) illustrates how selective attention and the ability to ignore distraction develop during middle childhood. The researchers asked children between 6 and 12 years of age to sort a deck of cards as quickly as possible on the basis of the figures depicted on each card (e.g., circle versus square). In one condition, only the relevant dimension (form) was shown on each card. In another condition, a dimension not relevant to the sorting also was present (e.g., a horizontal or vertical line in the figure). In a third condition, two irrelevant dimensions were present (e.g., a star above or below the figure, in addition to a horizontal or vertical line in the figure) . . . [T]he irrelevant information interfered with sorting ability for all age groups, but older children were much less affected than younger children. (p. 385)
Note that improvements in selective attention are related to brain development (Nelson, Thomas, & de Haan, 2006). However, a “child’s environment and experiences with parents are also important . . . Chil-dren from stimulating homes with warm, responsive parents gain control of their attention earlier than do children from less supportive homes. Why? One reason may be that frequent conversations with parents provide young children with guided oppor-tunities to observe and practice concentration and self-regulation” (Steinberg, Bornstein, Vandell, & Rook, 2011a, p. 210).
MemoryMemory involves “the processes of storing and re-trieving information” (Rathus, 2013, p. 285). Mem-ory entails three basic types—sensory, short-term, and long-term (Rathus, 2013, 2014a).
Sensory MemorySensory memory is “a subconscious process of pick-ing up sensory information from the environment (sights, sounds, smells, and touch). Sensory memory consists of fleeting impressions. This information is either forgotten or transferred to working memory: conscious representations of what a person is ac-tively thinking about at a given time” (Steinberg et al., 2011a, p. 211). In order for a person to remember
a sensory memory, the person needs to focus on it and probably relate it to other thoughts. Rathus (2013) explains:
When we look at an object and then blink our eyes, the visual impression of the object lasts for a fraction of a second in what is called sensory memory. Then the “trace” of the stimulus decays. The concept of sensory memory applies to all the senses. For example, when we are introduced to somebody, the trace of the sound of the name also decays, but we can remember the name by focusing on it. (p. 285)
Short-Term Memory (Working Memory)Short-term (or working) memory is “[t]he structure of memory that can hold a sensory stimulus for up to 30 seconds after the trace decays” (Rathus, 2013, p. G-13). Steinberg and colleagues (2011a) explain that short-term memory involves
conscious, short-term representations of what a person is actively thinking about at a given time. It depends on the child (or adult) paying attention and encoding the impression in some way—for example, attaching it to a known word or image. Working memory improves during early childhood from recall of two numbers at age 2½ years to five numbers at age 7, and about seven numbers in adulthood.
Part of the reason for the improvements in working memory is biological; part, social . . . [The portions of the brain] that provide the “hardware” for short-term memory . . . are developing during early childhood and provide the capacity that supports an expanded working memory (Nelson et al, 2006). And, as is the case with attention, the development of working memory is accelerated by warm, stimulating interactions with parents at home and by attending preschools or child-care centers that are high quality. (p. 211)
Long-Term MemoryLong-term memory is “[t]he structure of memory capable of relatively permanent storage of informa-tion” (Rathus, 2013, p. G-8). Rathus (2013) explains:
Think of long-term memory as a vast storehouse of information containing names, dates, places, what Johnny did to you in second grade, what Alyssa said about you when you were 12. Long-term memories may last days, years, or, for practical purposes, a lifetime.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 12 3
There is no known limit to the amount of information that can be stored in long-term memory. From time to time, it may seem that we have forgotten, or lost, a long-term memory, such as the names of elementary- or high-school classmates. But it is more likely that we cannot find the right cues to retrieve it. It is lost in the same way we misplace an object but know it is still in the house. (p. 287)
Development of Information-Processing StrategiesAs children grow older, they increase their abilities to process information and solve problems. They gradually get better at taking into account multiple variables, thinking about potential solutions, mak-ing decisions, and working out answers to problems. Children develop information-processing strate-gies to “store information in permanent [long-term] memory and retrieve it when needed later. To illus-trate, how do you try to learn the information in a textbook? If you’re like many college students, you probably use some combination of highlighting key sentences, outlining chapters, taking notes, writing summaries, and testing yourself. These are all effec-tive learning strategies that make it easier for you to store information permanently” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 198).
Other strategies include repetition, organiza-tion, elaboration, and the use of external support-ive techniques (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016). At age 7 or 8, children use simpler strategies like repetition. Repetition involves repeating some information over and over again to establish it more firmly in one’s memory. As they get older, children start to manage their information by using more complex strategies. Organization concerns “structuring information to be remembered so that related information is placed together” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 198). A child might group facts or concepts in categories accord-ing to some common variable. For example, a sixth grader studying for a history test might remember historical events geographically by relating them to the state or country in which they occurred. Simi-larly, that sixth grader might organize historical in-formation chronologically according to the dates when events occurred.
Another more advanced information-processing approach involves elaboration. Elaboration is “[a]
method for increasing retention of new information by relating it to well-known information” (Rathus, 2013, p. G-4). For example, a teacher might help a student remember new vocabulary words by placing them in the context of a sentence (Rathus, 2014a). Another example involves relating a new concept or word to other familiar words that sound similar. For instance, a child living in Juneau, Alaska, might be able to remember the word juniper (a type of ever-green shrub, pronounced joo-ne-per) by associating it with the word “Juneau.”
LO 6 Apply Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentLev Vygotsky proposed an alternative sociocultural theory of cognitive development to that developed by Piaget. Kail and Cavanaugh (2016) explain:
Human development is often referred to as a journey that takes people along many different paths. For Piaget . . . children make this journey alone. Other people (and culture in general) certainly influence the direction that children take, but fundamentally the child is a solitary adventurer-explorer, boldly forging ahead. Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934), a Russian psychologist, proposed a very different account: Development is an apprenticeship, in which children advance when they collaborate with others who are more skilled. According to Vygotsky (1934/1986), children rarely make much headway on the developmental path when they walk alone; they progress when they walk hand in hand with an expert partner. (p. 138) (emphasis omitted)
Unfortunately, Vygotsky died at the age of 37 from tuberculosis so never had time to fully develop his ideas. However, he has had a major impact on the understanding of cognitive development. He stressed that “children’s thinking is influenced by the sociocultural context in which children grow up” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 16).
Several important principles underlie Vygotsky’s theory (Vander Zanden, Crandell, & Crandell, 2007). First, a child’s development will differ depending on what’s going on around that child. In other words, children will develop differently depending on the so-cial and cultural circumstances and expectations evi-dent in where they grow up. Second, children develop
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12 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
as they are exposed to various social situations and changes to which they must respond. Third, devel-opment occurs as part of children’s interaction in group activities. Fourth, children develop by observ-ing others and learning from the activities and per-formance of those around them. Fifth, children must use a scheme of symbols such as language in order to process what they see and learn new skills. Sixth, children learn cultural values through their interac-tion with others around them.
According to Vygotsky, then, children interact with others and observe these interactions. They frame these interactions in their minds by thinking about them through the use of language. They then develop their ability to think and learn in the context of interpersonal interaction and understanding this interaction through language.
Vander Zanden and his colleagues (2007) provide an example of this process:
The child, according to Vygotsky, will observe something happening between others and then
will be able to take that observation and mentally incorporate it. One of Vygotsky’s examples is the way children use language. First, a child will be told “Say please and thank you” by his or her parents. The child will also see people saying “Please” and “Thank you” to each other. Then the child will begin to say these words aloud. By saying “Please” and “Thank you” aloud, the child is internalizing the words and the concepts they stand for in a social setting. Only after assimilating the words’ meaning can the child individually start to act in a polite manner. It follows that development is always a social process for Vygotsky, and the child—adult interaction plays an important role (Berk & Winsler, 1995). So it should come as no surprise that for Vygotsky, the way to understand development is to observe the individual in a social activity. (p. 55)
Spotlight 3.3 illustrates how values can be shaped depending on the cultural environment in which a child is raised.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.3
sociocultural learning of interdependence versus independenceN o r t h A m e r i c a n c u l t u re e n c o u r ag e s independence on the part of children (Vander Zanden et al., 2007). From birth on, children
usually sleep in a room apart from their parents. Children are often placed out of the home in day care while their parents work. “Parents also reinforce a preference for objects rather than people to be used as means of comforting in times of distress. Children are supplied and rely on ‘blankies,’ pacifiers, and stuffed animals rather than parents or other people to console them when they are upset or conflicted. Parents and children become adversaries over sleeping arrangements as children get older. The ‘terrible twos’ revolve around the young child’s eventual demand for independence” (Vander Zanden et al., 2007, p. 55). The culture generally encourages independence and competition. Children compete in school. Young adults compete for college admission. Workers compete for raises and advancement in their workplace environments.
In contrast, Vander Zanden and his colleagues (2007) describe how other cultures may encourage interdependence instead of independence:
Child-rearing practices in many other cultures stress interdependence, sometimes called collectivism, over independence or individualism, with the focus on ties to family. Children are socialized to think of themselves as being part of a group or community, rather than an individual at odds with those in the vicinity. For example, in the Pacific Island nation of Kiribati, an infant is in constant contact with some member of the extended family during the first year of life—sleeping with, eating with, and tagging along to work with a family member. These infants are socially involved in all of the day-to-day activities of the mother and father. Three generations of a family will gather around the baby to sing traditional songs while the infant is initiated into the social and cultural rhythms of the community. Rather than battling parents over issues of independence, the caregivers support the needs of the infant as they carry out the routine activities—there is no battle of the wills. (p. 55)
EP 2a EP 2c
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 12 5
At least three concepts are important in under-standing Vygotsky’s perspective: the zone of proxi-mal development, scaffolding, and private speech (Vygotsky, 1934/1986).
The Zone of Proximal DevelopmentThe zone of proximal (meaning “near”) develop-ment is “the difference between what a learner can accomplish independently and what he or she can accomplish with the guidance and encouragement of a more skilled partner” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 283; Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, the zone “refers to a range of tasks that the child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of . . . [others who are better at performing the activity.] To under-stand this idea, think of a sensitive adult . . . who introduces a child to a new activity. The adult picks a task that the child can master but that is challeng-ing enough that the child cannot do it by herself. Or the adult capitalizes on an activity that the child has chosen. The adult guides and supports, adjusting the level of support offered to fit the child’s current level of performance. As the child joins in the interac-tion and picks up mental strategies, her competence increases, and the adult steps back, permitting the child to take more responsibility for the task. This form of teaching—known as scaffolding [discussed in the next section]—promotes learning at all ages” (Berk, 2012a, p. 224).
The zone of proximal development, then, reflects the level of thinking a child can master when partici-pating in an activity by him- or herself, compared to the higher level of learning that can occur by watch-ing and interacting with others who know more about the activity. Consider the following example (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010):
Tanya, a 4-year-old, has just received her first jigsaw puzzle. She attempts to work the puzzle but gets nowhere until her father sits down beside her and gives her some tips. He suggests that it would be a good idea to put together the corners first, points to the pink area at the edge of one corner piece and says, “Let’s look for another pink piece.” When Tanya seems frustrated, he places two interlocking pieces near each other so that she will notice them, and when Tanya succeeds, he offers words of encouragement. As Tanya gradually gets the hang of it, he steps back and lets her work more and more independently. (p. 283)
ScaffoldingOne means by which children learn in the zone of proximal development is a process called scaffold-ing. In commonplace language, a scaffold implies a structure of support. Vygotsky defined scaffolding as the process whereby “adults help children learn how to think by ‘scaffolding,’ or supporting, their attempts to solve problems or discover principles” (Coon & Mitterer, 2009, p. 126; Daniels, 2005). Caregivers use scaffolding as they adjust their level of guidance and support to the level of help the child needs. In effect, the child and the caregiver are adjusting their behavior by responding reciprocally to each other.
Santrock (2016) elaborates:
For example, in the game peek-a-boo, parents initially cover their babies, then remove the covering and register “surprise” at the babies’ reappearance. As infants become more skilled at peek-a-boo, infants gradually do some of the covering and uncovering. In addition to peek-a-boo, pat-a-cake and “so-big” are other caregiver games that exemplify scaffolding and turn-taking sequences. (p. 211)
Private SpeechConsider Timmy, a 4-year-old who talks to him-self intensively as he draws a picture of his house. Vygotsky emphasized the significance of private speech, “comments that are not intended for oth-ers but are designed to help children regulate their own behavior” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 139; Vygotsky, 1934/1986).
Kail and Cavanaugh (2016) describe the signifi-cance of private speech:
Vygotsky viewed private speech as an intermediate step toward self-regulation of cognitive skills (Fernyhough, 2010). At first, children’s behavior is regulated by speech from other people that is directed toward them. When youngsters first try to control their own behavior and thoughts, without others present, they instruct themselves by speaking aloud. Private speech seems to be children’s way of guiding themselves, of making sure that they do all the required steps in solving a problem. Finally, as children gain ever greater skill, private speech becomes inner speech, which was Vygotsky’s term for thought (pp. 139–140)
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12 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Dacey and his colleagues (2009) provide an illustration:
For example, think of a 5-year-old girl asked to get a book from a library shelf. The book is just out of her reach, and as she tries to reach it, she mutters to herself, “Need a chair.” After dragging a chair over, she climbs up and reaches for the book. “Is that the one?” “Just a little more.” “OK.” Note how speech accompanies her physical movements, guiding her behavior. In two or three years, the same girl, asked to do the same thing, will probably act the same way, with one major exception: She won’t be talking aloud. Vygotsky believed she would be talking to herself, using inner speech to guide her behavior, and for the difficult tasks she undoubtedly would use inner speech to plan her behavior. (p. 134)
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Vygotsky’s TheoryVygotsky’s theory stresses the importance of social interaction and how a person functions within the environmental context, concepts basic to social work practice. This contrasts with Piaget’s theory, which proposes that all children progress through pre-defined phases in essentially the same way.
At least two positive implications of Vygotsky’s theory are important (Newman & Newman, 2015). First, it allows for appreciation of diverse cultures. How people think about and perceive things in one culture may differ radically from how they think about and perceive those same things in another cul-ture. Whereas Piaget “viewed the emergence of logi-cal thought as largely a universal process, Vygotsky considered the nature of reasoning and problem solving as culturally created” (Newman & Newman, 2015, p. 39). This focuses attention on the impor-tance of family and social influence on the early de-velopment of ideas.
A second positive implication of Vygotsky’s theory is that “individuals can promote their own cognitive development by seeking interactions with others who can help draw them to higher levels of functioning within their zone of proximal develop-ment” (Newman & Newman, 2015, p. 39). Thus, children can learn by interacting with others around them who are more skilled.
There are also criticisms of Vygotsky’s sociocul-tural theory. For example, interactions that “rely
heavily on the kinds of verbal instruction that Vygotsky emphasized may be less adaptive in some cultures or less useful for some forms of learning than for others. A young child learning to stalk prey in Australia’s outback or to plant, care for, and harvest rice in Southeast Asia may profit more from obser-vation and practice than from verbal instruction and encouragement. Other investigators are finding that collaborative problem solving among peers does not always benefit the collaborators and may actually un-dermine task performance if the more competent col-laborator is not very confident about what he knows or if he fails to adapt his instruction to a partner’s level of understanding” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 291).
Berk (2012a) provides other criticisms:
Vygotsky’s emphasis on culture and social experience led him to neglect the biological side of development. Although he recognized the importance of heredity and brain growth, he said little about their role in cognitive change. Furthermore, Vygotsky’s focus on social transmission of knowledge meant that, compared with other theorists, he placed less emphasis on children’s capacity to shape their own development. Followers of Vygotsky stress that children actively participate in the conversations and social activities from which their development springs. From these joint experiences, they not only acquire culturally valued practices but also modify and transform those practices (Nelson, 2007; Rogoff, 2003). Contemporary sociocultural theorists grant the individual and society balanced, mutually influential roles. (p. 25)
Vygotsky appears to be the recipient of less criti-cism than Piaget. There are at least two reasons for this. First, his approach fits well with the social work person-in-environment focus. Second, Vygotsky died very young, before being able to develop his theory to the fullest. Perhaps greater specificity would have allowed more options for detailed criticism.
LO 7 Explain Emotional DevelopmentBoth the concepts of personality and cognition and the relationship between them are complex and ab-stract. It is not clear exactly how thinking affects personality or how personality affects thinking. The tremendous amount of variation from one individual
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 12 7
to another, and even one individual’s varying reac-tions from one situation to another, makes it even more difficult to comprehend these concepts.
Emotions are also involved in a person’s develop-ment. They complicate the profile of an individual’s personality even further. For our purposes, emotion is the complex combination of feelings and moods that involves subtle psychological reactions and is expressed by displaying characteristic patterns of behavior. For example, a 4-year-old boy’s goldfish might be found floating belly-up one morning. On hearing the unhappy news, the boy might become upset. His heart might start beating faster, and his breathing might accelerate. Finally, he might run to his room and start to cry. In this case, the boy has experienced an emotion. His body responded as he became upset. Finally, the behavior of crying clearly displayed his emotional state.
Infants’ EmotionsBridges (1932), a very early researcher of infants’ emotions, claimed that infants initially showed only one basic emotion—excitement. J. B. Watson (1919), another early researcher, felt that infants were ca-pable of three basic emotions: love, rage, and fear. Each of these emotions, according to Watson, was emitted as a reflex reaction to a specific stimulus. For example, an infant would experience love if stroked softly and spoken to gently by a parent, rage if physically restrained, and fear if startled by an unex-pected loud noise.
Immediately upon birth, infants can express general interest, disgust, and distress. Other emotions, includ-ing surprise, anger, and sadness, occur approximately during the third to fourth month of life. Fear is dis-played during months 5 through 7. Emotions that re-flect self-awareness tend to develop later, sometimes not until the second year. Self-awareness is the realization that one is a unique entity distinctly separate from the surrounding environment and is involved in interaction with people and things in that environment. Such emo-tions include shyness, jealousy, pride, and shame.
CryingOne means by which babies can clearly display their emotions is through crying. Infants demonstrate at least three types of crying (Papalia & Martorell, 2015 Santrock, 2016). First, there is the basic cry (also referred to as the hunger cry). This is a “rhythmic
pattern that usually consists of a cry, followed by a briefer silence, then a shorter . . . whistle that is some-what higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the next cry. Some infancy experts stress that hunger is one of the conditions that incite the basic cry” (Santrock, 2016, p. 193). The second type is the angry cry, an exceptionally loud cry in which the baby forces a large column of air through the vocal cords. The third type, the cry of pain, is characterized by an initial loud wail with no preced-ing sniffling or moaning. The cry may be followed by the baby holding its breath for a long period.
Kail and Cavanaugh (2016) explain the signifi-cance of crying:
Crying is the newborn’s first attempt to communicate with others. They need to decide what the infant is trying to tell them and whether that warrants a quick response or whether they should let the baby soothe herself. (p. 83)
According to Berk (2012a):
Although parents do not always interpret their baby’s cry correctly, their accuracy improves with experience . . . Fortunately, there are many ways to soothe a crying baby when feeding and diaper changing do not work . . . The technique that Western parents usually try first, lifting the baby to the shoulder and rocking or walking, is most effective. (p. 148)
Different societies use different techniques to com-fort crying babies (Berk, 2012b). For example, in the harsh altitudes of the Andes Mountains, a Peruvian mother covers her infant’s body, including the head, with layers of blankets and clothing, and then places the infant’s pouch on her back. The warmth and the rhythmic motion of the mother’s walking serve to soothe the infant and encourage sleep. The desert !Kung people of Botswana carry their infants in hip slings made of animal skins. This positioning allows infants to view what’s going on around them and also to “nurse at will” (p. 149). Infants in cultures that pro-mote extensive close contact with their mothers tend to cry less than North American babies (Barr, 2001).
Smiling and LaughingBabies can also express themselves emotionally through smiling and laughing. Infants smiling at their parents and their parents smiling back provide a major means of fostering the primary relationship between children and parents.
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12 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Infants tend to progress through several basic phases of smiling (Martin & Fabes, 2009; Papalia & Martorell, 2015; Santrock, 2012b). Initially, invol-untary reflex smiling occurs, often while sleeping, as an automatic function of central nervous system de-velopment. After a few weeks, infants begin smiling in response to “visual, tactile, and auditory stimula-tion”; by 6 to 8 weeks of age, social smiling occurs where “the infant smiles upon seeing Mother’s or Father’s face or hearing her or his voice” (Martin & Fabes, 2009, p. 208). “From 2 to 6 months, in-fants’ social smiling increases considerably, both in self-initiated smiles and in smiles in response to oth-ers’ smiles” (Santrock, 2012b, p. 306). The smiling process reflects infants’ gradual orientation toward other people and social relationships.
Laughing may begin at the fourth month (Martin & Fabes, 2009; Papalia & Martorell, 2015). “At first laughing occurs in response to physical stimulation, such as tickling or being swooped up high in Mom’s or Dad’s arms . . . After 6 months of age, infants in-creasingly laugh at visual and social stimuli, such as playing peek-a-boo or seeing a sister make a funny face” (Martin & Fabes, 2009, p. 208).
Infants and TemperamentIt’s difficult to refer to personality with respect to infants. Personality implies a complex mixture of at-titudes, expressions, and behaviors that develop over time and characterize a specific individual. Infants don’t yet have enough breadth or ability for expres-sion to portray the complexity inherent in personal-ity. Rather, psychologists tend to refer to an infant’s temperament instead of personality. Temperament is each individual’s distinguishing mental and emo-tional nature that results in a characteristic pattern of responses to people and situations.
Researchers have identified the following six con-cepts involved in temperament:
1. “Fearful distress, reflecting a child’s tendency to withdraw and become distressed in new situations or circumstances
2. Anger/frustration, reflecting the degree to which a child becomes angry or frustrated when his or her needs or desires are not met
3. Positive affect, reflecting the amount of posi-tive emotion, pleasure, and excitement shown by a child
4. Activity level, reflecting a child’s level of gross motor activity and energy
5. Attention span/persistence, reflecting a child’s ability to maintain focus and interest
6. Regularity, reflecting the predictability of a child’s behavior” (Martin & Fabes, 2009, pp. 214–215; Putnam, Gartstein, & Rothbart, 2006; Rothbart & Mauro, 1990).
Psychologists often use three basic categories of temperament to characterize children (Rathus, 2011a; Santrock, 2016; Sigelman & Rider, 2012; Thomas & Chess, 1977, 1989, 1991). Easy children are those whose lives have a relatively predictable, rhythmic pattern. They are generally cheerful and easy to get along with. They accept change well and are interested in new situations. The second category of child temperament includes difficult children. These children are frequently irritable, show much irregularity in their daily pattern of activities, and have much difficulty adapting to new situations. They can have intense reactions when confronted with something unfamiliar. Finally, there are the slow-to-warm-up children. They tend to have a generally low level of activity, a mild temperament, and moderate reactions to new situations and experiences. They often withdraw from the unfamiliar, at least initially, and are slow to make changes in themselves.
Rathus (2014b) comments on the stability of tem-perament over time:
There is at least moderate consistency in the development of temperament from infancy onward (Elliot & Thrash, 2010; Zuckerman, 2011). The infant who is highly active and cries in novel situations often becomes a fearful toddler. An anxious, unhappy toddler tends to become an anxious, unhappy adolescent. The child who refuses to accept new foods during infancy may scream when getting the first haircut, refuse to leave a parent’s side during the first day of kindergarten, and have difficulty adjusting to college as a young adult. Difficult children in general are at greater risk for developing psychological disorders and adjustment problems later in life (Pauli-Pott et al., 2003; Rothbart et al., 2004). A longitudinal study tracked the progress of infants with a difficult temperament from 1½ through 12 years of age (Guerin et al., 1997). Temperament during infancy was assessed by the mother. Behavior patterns were assessed by both parents during the third year through the age of 12 and by teachers from the ages of 6 to 11. A difficult temperament correlated significantly with parental reports of behavioral problems from ages
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 12 9
3 to 12, including problems with attention span and aggression. Teachers concurred that children who had shown difficult temperaments during infancy were more likely to be aggressive later on and to have shorter attention spans. (pp. 246–247)
Note, however, that temperament and adjustment are very complex. Consider that the relationships between a child’s temperament and later adjustment are questionable in that they’re based on only a few studies (Santrock, 2016).
Additionally, more than a third of children do not fit neatly into any of these three categories (Berk, 2012b). An infant’s temperament involves emotion-ality, activity, and sociability. Many children show a combination of difficult and easy characteristics, yet still fall clearly within the realm of what is considered normal. For instance, a child may have an extremely irregular sleeping schedule, yet reach out and adapt quickly to new, unfamiliar people. Likewise, a child may be cheerful and easygoing most of the time, but horribly stubborn and difficult to live with on some occasions, such as when visiting relatives. The re-search points to some general tendencies; however, each infant, child, and adult is a unique person.
Theorists generally concur that an infant’s tem-perament results from both hereditary and envi-ronmental factors (Berk, 2012b; Santrock, 2016; Steinberg et al., 2011a). Some research found that identical twins were more likely to reflect a
similar temperament than were fraternal twins (Buss & Goldsmith, 2007; Santrock, 2016; Steinberg, Van-dell, & Bornstein, 2011b). Yet, the relationship is neither perfect nor clear.
Why does temperament change for many people as they age? People modify their behavior and at-titudes as they encounter new experiences. A major variable related to overall adjustment may be the “goodness of fit” between the individual and the expectations in the social environment (Papalia & Martorell, 2015; Santrock, 2016; Sigelman & Rider, 2012). For instance, take parents who expect to have a dynamic, motivated child who is eager for new experiences. If they discover that their child is mild mannered, hesitant, and somewhat shy, they may be very disappointed. They may even place inordinate pressure on the child to be very different than he or she naturally is. On the other hand, take parents who sustain a family climate where moods are intense, daily routines are irregular, and changes are assimi-lated only slowly. A difficult child’s fit in such a fam-ily may be good. The family may not view the child as difficult at all, but rather as normal.
If parents recognize that their child has a temper-ament of his or her own that may be very different from their own temperaments, they can make adjust-ments in their own behavior and expectations to help that child along. For instance, a slow-to-warm-up child can be given more time to adjust to new situ-ations. Likewise, parents of a difficult child who has
An infant’s temperament involves emotionality, activity, and sociability.
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13 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
trouble organizing her day in a predictable man-ner can help her by providing structure and helping her learn how to make plans and carry them out. Spotlight 3.4 discusses cross-cultural expectations and temperament.
AttachmentAttachment “is a strong affectional tie that binds a person to an intimate companion and is character-ized by affection and a desire to maintain proxim-ity” (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. G-2). Attachment theory, originally developed by John Bowlby (1969), provides a major perspective on initial human rela-tionships. Kail and Cavanaugh (2016) remark:
According to Bowlby, children who form an attachment to an adult—that is, an enduring
socio-emotional relationship—are more likely to survive. This person is usually the mother but need not be; the key is a strong emotional relationship with a responsive, caring person. Attachments can form with fathers, grandparents, or someone else. (p. 162)
Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of interaction between the parent (or other caregiver) and the child that results in emotional bonding. The infant is viewed as an active participant in the rela-tionship-building process. This perspective differs from Freud’s oral stage, which stresses the infant’s passivity and dependence on the caregiver.
Stages of AttachmentBased on Bowlby’s conceptual framework, attach-ment develops in four stages, progressing from a fondness for people in general to an attachment to specific individuals who care for them (Berk, 2012b;
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.4
cross-cultural Diversity in expectations and temperamentParental and social expectations that vary dramatically from one culture to another can affect the development of temperament. Malaysian infants tend to be less flexible and responsive to new situations and more reactive to outside stimuli than American infants; this may be due to the fact that Malaysian parents shelter children from
new conditions that necessitate adaptability, on the one hand, and promote sensitivity to new sensations such as the need for a diaper change, on the other (Banks, 1989; Papalia & Feldman, 2012).
Sigelman and Rider (2009) comment on an example posed by the Masai in East Africa:
In most settings, an easy temperament is likely to be more adaptive than a difficult one, but among the Masai during famine, babies with difficult temperaments outlived easy babies. Why? Perhaps because Masai parents believe that difficult babies are future warriors or perhaps because babies who cry loud and long get noticed and fed. As this example suggests, a particular temperament may be a good fit to the demands of one environment but maladaptive under other circumstances. (p. 315)
One cross-cultural study of Canadian and Chinese 2-year-olds found significant differences in temperament, with Chinese children generally being much shyer and more withdrawn than Canadian children (Chen et al., 1998). Canadian mothers
were much more punitive and overprotective in orientation with shy children, whereas Chinese mothers supported and encouraged introverted behavior. Perhaps, this difference is due to the expectation in Western countries such as Canada that children should be more outgoing and assertive if they’re ever going to get anywhere in this world. Mothers might react to shy behavior either with cold rejection or with coddling. In contrast, introversion and self-control are valued in China. Therefore, mothers might encourage this sort of temperament and discourage more aggressive behavior.
Another example involves a group of Mayans in southern Mexico, the Zinacantecos (Greenfield & Childs, 1991). Their infants tend to be very quiet and relatively immobile as newborns. Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, and Roy (2008) explain that Mayan mothers
reinforce this innate predisposition toward restrained motor activity by swaddling their infants and by nursing at the slightest sign of movement . . . This combination of genetic predisposition and cultural reinforcement is culturally adaptive: Quiet Mayan infants do not kick off their covers at night, which is important in the cold highlands where they live; inactive infants are able to spend long periods on their mother’s back as she works at the loom; infants who do not begin to walk until they can understand some language do not wander into the open fire at the center of the house. (p. 480)
EP 2a EP 2c
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 131
Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016; Steinberg et al., 2011a). They include the following stages:
Stage 1: “Preattachment.” During the first two months of life, infants learn to distinguish between people and things. Subsequently, they respond increasingly more to people in general by smiling and vocalizing.
Stage 2: “Attachment in the making.” From age 2 to 8 months, infants learn to distinguish between primary caregivers and strangers. They respond more positively to caregivers and display enthusiasm and excitement during their interactions. They also demonstrate upset when the caregiver leaves. The complex process of emotional attachment develops as the infant and caregiver learn how to respond to each other.
Stage 3: “True attachment.” From age 8 to 18 months, infants search out their caregivers and try to stay close to them. As crawling and mobility increase, infants maintain periodic eye contact with their caregiver as they explore their environment. They begin paying closer attention to the caregivers’ reactions to their behavior and often respond accordingly. For example, an infant might smile if the caregiver is near and giving the child close attention. Or the infant might quickly return to the caregiver if he or she perceives that the caregiver is too far away. Infants continue to develop a more detailed internal picture of the caregiver, his or her behavior, and his or her expectations. Infants become more adept at interpreting the caregiver’s reactions and anticipating how the caregiver will respond to their distress.
Stage 4: “Reciprocal relationships.” Beginning at age 18 months, children develop increased sensitivity to their dynamic interaction with the caregiver. Children begin showing affection while seeking the love, attention, and physical contact they need. Children might ask their caregiver to read them a bedtime story or give them a hug. They develop increasing sensitivity to their caregivers’ feelings and goals (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013, p. 170).
Qualities of AttachmentFour factors contribute to the attachment between the child and the caregiver (Cassidy, 1999; Colin, 1996; Newman & Newman, 2015):
1. Significant amount of time spent together.2. Alert reactions to the child’s needs and the provi-
sion of attentive care.
3. The caregiver’s emotional responsiveness and depth of commitment to the child.
4. Being readily available in a child’s life over a long period of time.
These variables make sense. The more responsive the care, attentiveness, and emotional commitment demonstrated by a caregiver are, the more intense the relationship with the child will be. Such qualities also provide the child with more opportunities to re-spond positively to the caregiver’s overtures. Positive responses can reinforce the dynamic interpersonal interaction between the caregiver and the child, re-sulting in an ever-increasing level of attachment.
Patterns of AttachmentInfants and caregivers have various degrees of at-tachment that are distinguished by the closeness and quality of the relationship. Four patterns have been established: secure attachment, anxious-avoidant attachment, anxious-resistant attachment, and dis-organized attachment. Most infants form a secure attachment with their mother (or other primary care-giver or caregivers) (Thompson, 1998). Newman and Newman (2015) explain:
Infants who have a secure attachment actively explore their environment and interact with strangers
Attachment theory emphasizes the importance of interaction between parent (or other caregiver) and child that results in emotional bonding.
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132 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
while their mothers are present. After separation, the babies actively greet their mothers or seek interaction. If the babies were distressed during separation, the mothers’ return reduces their distress and the babies return to exploration of the environment . . .
Infants who show an anxious-avoidant attachment avoid contact with their mothers during the reunion segment following separation or ignore their efforts to interact. They appear to expect that their mothers will not be there when needed. They show less distress at being alone than other babies. Mothers of babies who were characterized as anxious-avoidant seem to reject their babies. It is almost as if they were angry at their babies. They spend less time holding and cuddling their babies than other mothers, and more of their interactions are unpleasant or even hurtful . . .
Infants who show an anxious-resistant attachment are very cautious in the presence of the stranger. Their exploratory behavior is noticeably disrupted by the caregiver’s departure. When the caregiver returns, the infants appear to want to be close to the caregiver, but they are also angry, so that they are very hard to soothe or comfort. Infants who are characterized as anxious-resistant have mothers who are inconsistent in their responsiveness . . .
In the disorganized attachment, babies’ responses are particularly notable in the reunion sequence. These babies have no consistent strategy for managing their distress. They behave in contradictory, unpredictable ways that seem to convey feelings of extreme fear or utter confusion . . .Some mothers are negative, intrusive, and they frighten their babies in bursts of intense hostility. Other mothers are passive and helpless, rarely showing positive or comforting behaviors. (pp. 164–165)
The characteristics of both the infant and the caregiver contribute to the development of attach-ment. Caregivers who are sensitive to a child’s needs and demonstrate the factors related to attachment discussed previously may facilitate the attachment process (Newman & Newman, 2015; Papalia & Martorell, 2015). Infant characteristics such as ir-ritability may make the attachment process more difficult, although research indicates that caregivers’ responsive, positive approaches to meeting infants’ needs tend to override infant characteristics in the attachment process (Berk, 2012b). In the United States, about two-thirds of children are identified as security attached, while the others are more likely to
be identified as anxious-avoidant (Newman & New-man, 2015).
Long-Term Effects of AttachmentOne research review examined 63 studies exploring the relationship between parent–child attachment and children’s subsequent development of social rela-tionships with peers (Schneider, Atkinson, & Tardif, 2001). Children who manifested secure attachment with caregivers early on tended to have more posi-tive social interactions with peers as they got older and formed closer friendships. It follows that chil-dren who learn how to trust and interact positively as young children can apply these skills when they develop other social relationships later on.
The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) asks adults about their attachment experiences. Studies have found that adults relate to their children in the same way their parent or caregiver responded to them (for example, an individual with a secure attachment with her mom is more likely to help her child form a secure attachment) (Newman & Newman, 2015). It has also been shown that parents can become more sensitive to their child’s attach-ment needs with support, changing the attachment pattern (Newman & Newman, 2015).
Attachment and Day CareWhen considering the importance of attachment and interaction, some working parents worry about the effects that day care might have on their children. Coon and Mitterer (2011) address this issue:
Does commercial day care interfere with the quality of attachment? It depends on the quality of day care. Overall, high-quality day care does not adversely affect attachment to parents (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 1999). In fact, children in high-quality day care tend to have better relationships with their mothers and fewer behavior problems. They also have better cognitive skills and language abilities (Burchinal et al., 2000; Vandell, 2004). (pp. 100–101)
However, note that poor-quality day care has just the opposite effects (Coon & Mitterer, 2011). It can actually encourage behavior problems to develop (Pierrehumbert, Ramstein, Karmaniola, Miljkovitch, & Halfon, 2002).
What constitutes good day care? Parents should assess at least five aspects when considering a daycare
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 13 3
center or provider (Howes, 1997). First, there should be a small staff-child ratio so that children receive adequate personal attention. Second, the size of the total group present should be no more than 12 to 15 children. Once again, the importance of per-sonal attention is stressed. Third, caregivers should be trained in various relevant areas such as child de-velopment and child management to best meet chil-dren’s needs. Fourth, staffing should be stable with little turnover so that children can be secure in their relationships with caregivers and suffer minimal dis-ruption. Fifth, the daily experience should be steady and predictable, with clearly established procedures and effectively planned activities. Coon and Mitterer (2011) note that parents should also probably “avoid any child-care center with the words zoo, menagerie, or stockade in its name” (p. 101).
Spotlight 3.5 addresses cross-cultural differences in attachment.
LO 8 Examine Self-concept, Self-esteem, and EmpowermentAll individuals form impressions about who they think they are. It’s almost as if each person develops a unique theory regarding who exactly she feels she is. This personal impression of one’s own “unique
attributes and traits,” both “positive and negative,” is referred to as the self-concept (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. 348). The idea of self-concept was intro-duced earlier in a discussion of Carl Rogers’s self theory. A related idea is that of self-esteem. Self-esteem refers to a person’s judgment of his or her own value. Although self-concept may include more aspects about the self than just value, the two terms are often used interchangeably.
Self-concept is an important theme through-out mental health literature. Improving one’s self-concept is often seen as a therapeutic goal for people with adjustment problems and as a means of empowerment. One’s self-concept is important throughout life. In order to continue working, liv-ing, striving, and positively interacting with oth-ers, one must have a positive self-concept. In other words, one must feel good enough about oneself to continue living and being productive. This is just as true for children as it is for adults. Highlight 3.3 demonstrates the effects of positive and negative self-concepts in children.
The self-concept is an abstract idea. It is difficult to explain exactly what it involves. However, it is still an important factor in a person’s ability to function. People of virtually any age need to feel good about themselves in order to be confident and enjoy life’s experiences.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.5
cross-cultural Differences in attachmentAs with temperament, social expectations adopted by parents (or other caregivers) for children’s levels of attachment, dependence, activity, or autonomy may affect how attachment develops. Berk (2012b) reflects:
German infants show considerably more avoidant attachment than American
babies do. But German parents encourage their infants to be nonclingy and independent, so the baby’s behavior may be an intended outcome of cultural beliefs and practices (Grossmann et al., 1985). In contrast, a study of infants of the Dogon people of Mali, Africa, revealed that none showed avoidance attachment to their mothers (True, Pisani, & Oumar, 2001). Even when grandmothers are primary caregivers (as they are with
firstborn sons). Dogon mothers remain available to their babies, holding them close and nursing them promptly in response to hunger and distress. (p. 268)
A high proportion of Japanese infants demonstrate anxious-resistant attachment. They are quite wary of strangers (Berk, 2012b), perhaps because Japanese mothers keep their infants very close to them. Japanese parents value infants’ dependence on them and expect infants to resist separation; thus, anxious-resistant attachment is a normal expectation for the development of the Japanese parent–child relationship (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000).
Finally, although cultural variations in attachment do exist, secure attachment still tends to be the norm in most infant-caregiver relationships (van IJzendoorn & Sagi, 1999).
EP 2a EP 2c
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13 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Theoreticians have emphasized the social sig-nificance of the self-concept and have labeled it “the meeting ground of the individual and society” (Markus & Nurius, 1984, p. 147). Middle childhood is the period when children are confronted with so-cial expectations and demands. They become aware of the importance of the social setting and begin evaluating how they fit in.
One way of exploring the issue of self-esteem or self-worth stems from Harter’s work (1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2006). (For the purposes of our discussion, the terms self-esteem and self-worth will be used interchangeably.) Harter postulates that children develop a sense of global self-worth, an overall view of how positively they feel about themselves, in two ways. First, self-worth is based on how competent children perceive themselves to be. Second, self-esteem depends on the amount of social support they receive from those around them. Children tend to establish positive or negative per-ceptions of themselves by about age 5, but they are unable to describe this awareness in words until about age 8 (Papalia & Martorell, 2015)
In exploring self-worth, Harter asked elemen-tary-school children how competent and confident they felt about five different areas of their lives. The first, scholastic competence, involved how well chil-dren felt they performed in doing schoolwork. The
second area concerned athletic competence, the children’s perception of their sports prowess. Third, children were asked about their social competence—that is, how well accepted and popular they felt they were. The fourth area of competence concerned behavioral conduct, or how the children felt others viewed their behavior. The fifth area was physical ap-pearance, how attractive they felt they appeared to others and how they felt about their specific physi-cal characteristics (such as height, weight, hair, or facial attractiveness). In addition to these five areas, Harter asked questions directed at the children’s overall sense of global self-worth.
Harter’s research resulted in at least three major findings. First, the most significant variable con-tributing to self-esteem was how much positive re-gard children felt from people around them. The most important people were parents and class-mates, followed by friends and teachers. It is inter-esting that these children rated classmates above friends in terms of importance. Perhaps they felt more social pressure and experienced more pain-ful criticism from peers they were not close to. It is also interesting that children at all grade levels rated their parents high in importance. This contra-dicts the idea that as children grow up, their peers become more significant to them and their parents lose ground.
HIGHLIGHT 3.3
the effects of Positive and negative self-conceptsTwo 5-year-old girls, one with a good self-concept and the other with a relatively poor self-concept, illustrate the enormous effects of self-concept. Julie, who has a positive perception of self, is fairly confident in new situations. When she enters kindergarten, she assertively introduces herself to her peers and eagerly makes new friends. She frequently becomes a leader in their games. She often volunteers to answer her teacher’s questions. Her teacher considers her happy and well adjusted.
In contrast, Mary has a relatively poor self-concept. She does not think very highly of herself or her abilities. On her first day of kindergarten, she usually stays by herself or lingers on the fringes of activities. She speaks little to others out of fear that they might criticize her. She really wants to be liked but is worried that there is nothing to like about her. Thus, it is easier for her to remain quiet and unobtrusive. For
example, one day the teacher brings out pieces of colored clay for the children to play with. Being so quiet and afraid, Mary does not rush up to her teacher to get hers even though playing with clay is one of her favorite pastimes. Rather, she waits until all the other children have their clay and are returning to their seats.
By the time Mary approaches the teacher, all the clay has been handed out. Instead of clay, her teacher gives her a coloring book and some crayons. Mary takes them passively and begins to color a big yellow duck. All the while she is crying silently to herself. She is very disappointed that she did not get any clay. She also is hoping no one will notice that she is different from everyone else. Mary has a poor self-concept. She is afraid of others and what they might think. She does not have much self-esteem.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 135
A second research finding was the ranking of the five areas. For both younger children (grades 3 through 5) and older children (grades 6 through 8), physical appearance was the most important, and behavioral conduct was the least important.
A third significant result involved the relationship between self-worth and affect (emotional mood). Children who felt a more positive global self-worth tended to be happier. They also were more likely to involve themselves in activities, trust in their own beliefs, express a high level of self-confidence, and handle criticism better. Those children who had a poorer sense of global self-worth were less happy, sad, and even depressed. They tended to hold them-selves back from activities and be watchers rather than doers. They also were more likely to criticize themselves and experience frustration more easily. The implications of this research are that it is im-portant to enhance children’s self-esteem, especially those children with exceptionally low levels.
Significant Issues and Life EventsSeveral issues and life events that can affect chil-dren are discussed in this section. They were selected based on the importance of the effects they have on children and on the probability that social workers will encounter these issues in practice. The issues are intelligence testing, along with its potential problems and cultural biases; intellectual disabilities (men-tal retardation); learning disabilities; and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. The content focuses on both characteristics and treatment.
LO 9 Discuss Intelligence and Intelligence TestingIntelligence may be defined as the ability to under-stand, to learn, and to deal with new, unknown situ-ations. Beyond this general definition, little is known about the origins of intelligence. Attempts to refine and clarify the definition have ranged from primitive measurement of head size, referred to as phrenology, to the listing of specific mental abilities that are sup-posed to be involved in intelligence (e.g., the ability to perceive spatial relationships, perceptual speed, memory, word fluency, reasoning, numerical ability, and verbal ability) (Thurstone, 1938).
Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized IntelligenceCattell (1971) identifies two different types of intel-ligence: fluid and crystallized. Fluid intelligence is an individual’s natural aptitude for solving highly conceptual problems as well as other problems, re-membering facts, attending to the task at hand, and calculating numerical figures. This type of intelli-gence is innate and, therefore, theoretically not sub-ject to change over the life span. Such native aspects of intelligence include the ability to perform abstract computations and memory capabilities. Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, includes intellectual abilities that emphasize verbal communication and involve the ability to learn from others in the social environment through education and interaction. For instance, a person can learn a language or increase vocabulary. The person can also acquire new in-formation and benefit from what has been learned through experience.
It would logically follow, then, that fluid intelli-gence would remain relatively constant throughout the life span, but that crystallized intelligence has the potential to increase.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of IntelligenceSternberg (1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1996, 2000a, 2000b, 2004, 2008, 2009) has proposed a tri-archic theory of human intelligence that emphasizes the context in which behavior occurs. He believes that three major components are involved in intel-ligence. These components are integrally related to a person’s adaptive behavior—that is, what is rel-evant in the individual person’s environment. For example, Bill Klumpe’s business was to install sep-tic tanks around small towns and rural farmlands in southeastern Wisconsin. Septic tanks were necessary because public sewers were unavailable throughout the area. Bill’s reading skills were so poor that he had barely passed the written test to get his driver’s license. The advent of calculators was a blessing to him because he was not adept at adding and sub-tracting numbers when figuring out what his cus-tomers owed him.
However, Bill was the best septic tank installer people in the area had ever seen. He had learned the business as a teenager, and now, in his 50s, he knew just about everything about septic tanks. He could look at a piece of schedule 40 PVC piping and know
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13 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
immediately if it was the right size for the proper drainage capacity. His gaskets were perfect, and his pipe couplings never leaked. His buddies at the bowling alley tavern sometimes would tease him, “You don’t have a brain in your head, but you sure can dig!” Sternberg would say that what Bill had was intelligence. He had the capability to use his mind extremely well in those areas that were most signifi-cant to him.
Thus, Sternberg’s model emphasizes the relevance of what people think about. The three specific com-ponents of intelligence are the componential, expe-riential, and contextual elements. The componential element involves how people think about, process, and analyze information to solve problems and evaluate their results. People who have high levels of componential intelligence also score highly on intel-ligence tests and are good at debate and formulating arguments.
The second component of intelligence, accord-ing to Sternberg, is the experiential element. This involves a person’s actual doing of a task. It is the insightful, perceptive facet of intellect that enables an individual to put together information in new and creative ways. For example, Einstein conceptualized a theory of relativity. Part of this has to do with be-ing able to master some tasks so that they become almost automatic. The mind can then devote greater attention to solving new parts of a problem or to working on new and better ways of accomplishing a task.
For example, Ruth, a medical transcriber at a large suburban hospital, types all the technical medical reports that physicians dictate on tape so that the information becomes part of each patient’s permanent medical record. Over her many years of experience, she has identified a large body of tech-nical medical words that are used repeatedly. In or-der to save time and make herself more efficient, she has developed a coding system that uses sym-bols or abbreviations to represent technical words and has encoded these into her word-processing software. For instance, when she types the letters cd, the computer interprets the letters to mean cephalo-pelvic disproportion, which the processor automati-cally prints. This system allows Ruth to concentrate more closely on the new, unknown, or most difficult terminology.
Sternberg’s third component of intelligence is the contextual element. This involves the practical aspect
of how people actually adapt to their environment. Within an individual’s personal situation, it involves what knowledge is learned and how that knowledge can best be put to use in a practical sense.
To illustrate these three components, consider three undergraduate social work students: Jackie, Danielle, and Sara. Jackie had gotten almost straight A’s in high school. In college, she was a whiz at tak-ing both multiple-choice and true-or-false exams. However, she did not do nearly as well on essay exams, especially when they involved applications to problem situations in practice (e.g., how a so-cial worker would intervene in a family where al-cohol abuse was involved). She also had a terrible time when she entered her first social work practice course where she had to learn and apply interview-ing skills in role plays. Eventually, she switched her major to sociology. She felt she could best apply her interest in working with people if she went on to graduate school in sociology and eventually did social research.
Danielle, on the other hand, did extremely well on essay exams but not as well on the objective multiple-choice and true-or-false tests. She got A’s in the social work practice courses, which involved ar-ticulating how she would help people solve problems in the field. Her instructors praised her for her cre-ativity and ideas. When she got into her field intern-ship, she performed relatively well. She was able to apply her knowledge and skills to practice situations. She had some difficulty, however, working with cli-ents who came from socioeconomic and ethnic back-grounds radically different than hers. Her final grade in field was an A2.
Sara barely got her college application accepted. She was in the lowest 25 percent of her high school graduating class, which meant she had to begin col-lege on probation. She barely squeaked by each semester with the minimal cumulative grade point necessary. She also managed to attain the required grade point necessary to get into her advanced so-cial work courses and continue on in the major. However, when she finally got into her field place-ment, her social work supervisor raved about what an excellent student she was. Sara was able to take on difficult cases early in the semester and required relatively little supervision. Sara’s personal manner was such that she established relationships quickly with clients. She was able to make clear applica-tions of the practice skills she had learned in her
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 137
courses. It almost seemed like working with peo-ple as a social worker came naturally to her. She seemed to have a natural sense of what to do in situations that were completely foreign to her. She received an A in field-work, which contrasted with her C1 cumulative grade. The agency later enthusi-astically hired her.
Each of these three individuals is strong in one component in Sternberg’s model of intelligence. Jackie was strong in the componential aspect of in-telligence. She could conceptualize extremely well at abstract levels and clearly remember facts and details. Danielle’s strength lay in the experiential component of intelligence. She was creative and in-sightful. She could take recommendations for what to do in a specific situation and clearly apply them. Sara excelled in the contextual aspect of intelligence. She could adapt virtually to any situation and solve problems in a very practical sense.
In real life, people can be strong in any or all of these components. They have an intellectual mixture of strengths and weaknesses.
Intelligence TestingWe have established that no absolutely clear defini-tion of intelligence exists. Therefore, it is impor-tant to recognize the relationship between the more global concept of intelligence and the intelligence quotient, commonly referred to as IQ. Many mis-takenly assume that an IQ represents the absolute quantity of intelligence that a person possesses. This is not true. An IQ really stands for how well an indi-vidual might perform on a specific intelligence test in relation to how well others perform on the same test. The IQ, then, involves two basic facets. One is the score that a person attains on a certain type of test. The other is the person’s relative standing within the peer group.
An IQ score is the best thing available for at-tempting to measure whatever intelligence is there. Such a statement may not inspire confidence in the value of one’s IQ. However, perhaps it should elicit caution. IQ scores can be used to determine grade school placement, admission to special programs, and encouragement or lack thereof to attend college. A person who is aware of having a low IQ score may establish lower expectations. These lower expecta-tions may act as a barrier to what the person could actually achieve. She might become the victim of a
self-fulfilling prophecy—that is, what she expects is what she gets.
This could have been the case, for example, for a returning college student who was the mother of three children. She was also receiving social insur-ance benefits because of a permanent disability. Her vocational counselor told her that her IQ was not nearly high enough for success in college. He sug-gested that she stay home and enjoy her moderate financial benefits. Although his statements discour-aged her, she had the courage and stamina to enroll with a full course load at a well-respected state uni-versity. Her final grade report after her first semester indicated that she had achieved a perfect 4.0 average. She immediately returned to her vocational coun-selor and requested financial assistance for a com-puter to assist her in her course work. He mumbled in an embarrassed manner that that might be a good idea.
Intelligence testing is done in both group and in-dividual formats. Many school systems use group testing because it is less time consuming and cheaper. Individual tests, however, tend to be more precise and useful in targeting specific areas of need. The most frequently used tests in the English language include the Stanford-Binet Test and the Wechsler In-telligence Scale, which are described in the next sec-tions (Kalat, 2011).
The Stanford-Binet IQ TestA common intelligence test is the Stanford-Binet IQ test. First used in 1905, it has continued to be re-fined. Schools frequently use the Stanford-Binet to determine program and grade placement and poten-tial academic success.
The Stanford-Binet test can be administered to individuals age 2 through later adulthood (Coon & Mitterer, 2011; Roid, 2003). Scores can be ob-tained in five areas that measure both verbal ability (related to the use and understanding of language) and nonverbal ability (related to problem solving and thinking in ways that do not use language, such as completing pictures) (Roid, 2003). The five aspects of reasoning assessed include “fluid reasoning (e.g., completing verbal analogies, such as ‘hot is to cold as ____ is to low’), knowledge (e.g., defining words, detecting errors in pictures), qualitative reasoning (e.g., solving math problems), visual-spatial process-ing (e.g., assembling a puzzle), and working memory (e.g., repeating a sentence). Each of the five abilities
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13 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
is measured by one verbal and one nonverbal sub-test, so it is possible to calculate a core for each of the five abilities, a total score on all the verbal tests, a total score on all the nonverbal tests, and an over-all score for all ten tests combined” (Bernstein, 2011, p. 277).
The Stanford-Binet measures “performance as an intelligence quotient or IQ, which is the mental age to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100: IQ 5 MA/CA 3 100. At any age, children who are perfectly average have an IQ of 100 because their mental age equals their chronological age. Further-more, roughly two thirds of children taking a test will have IQ scores between 85 and 115. The IQ score can also be used to compare intelligence in children of different ages. A 4-year-old girl with an MA of 5 has an IQ of 125 (5/4 3 100), just like that of an 8-year-old boy with an MA of 10 (10/8 3 100)” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016, p. 206).
In the past, the Stanford-Binet was criticized be-cause of its heavy emphasis on verbal ability. Chil-dren whose verbal ability was not strong for some reason may not have had their actual intellectual ability adequately reflected. However, the current edition diminishes that bias and focuses more on other avenues of reasoning. For example, a child might be asked to define several words, such as ba-nana or pencil, as part of the verbal assessment, and then be asked to draw a course through a maze to test other aspects of thinking ability. The test is also designed to be more evenly responsive to a broad range of groups differing significantly in geographic location, ethnicity, and gender. Newly designed ap-proaches stress nonverbal performance for people with “limited English, deafness, or communication disorders” (Roid, 2003).
The Wechsler TestsTwo commonly used variations of the Wechsler tests are the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition (WISC-IV) (Kalat, 2011). Kalat explains that both tests
produce the same average, 100, and almost the same distribution of scores as the Stanford-Binet. The WISC is given to children up to age 16, and the WAIS is for everyone older . . .
A Wechsler test provides an overall score and four major subscores. One is the Verbal Comprehension
Index, based on such items as “Define the word letter” and “How are a peach and a plum similar?” A second part is the Perceptual Reasoning Index, which calls for nonverbal answers. For example, the examiner might arrange four blocks in a particular pattern and then ask the child to arrange four other blocks to match the pattern….
A third part, the Working Memory Index, includes such items as “Listen to these numbers and then repeat them: 3 6 2 5” and “Listen to these numbers and repeat them in reverse order: 4 7 6.” The fourth part is Processing Speed. An example of an item is “Here is a page full of shapes. Put a slash (/) through all the circles and X through all the squares.” This task is simple, but the question is how quickly someone can proceed accurately. (p. 321)
Comparing verbal and performance scores as well as reviewing scores on specific subtests can be especially useful in detecting specific learning prob-lems. For example, if a child performs significantly better on the performance segments than on the verbal ones, a learning disability (discussed later in the chapter) or some other perceptual deficit may be present.
Ethical Question 3.2
EP 1
Should children be informed of their IQ? Should parents be told of their child’s results? What are the reasons for your answers?
Targeting Special NeedsPerhaps one of the most beneficial uses of IQ tests is in targeting special needs. For example, IQ is one of the measures used to identify both gifted people and people with intellectual disabilities (historically referred to as mental retardation).
Gifted PeopleGiftedness has been defined in many ways. Accord-ing to the No Child Left Behind Act, the terms gifted and talented are used in regards to children “who give evidence of high achievement capability
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 139
in such areas as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinar-ily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities” (National Association for Gifted Children, [NAGC] (2016a); however, not all states follow this definition. In addition, there is no federal mandate for gifted education programming. Other definitions of giftedness exist. Five dimensions have emerged that characterize the majority of the defi-nitions (Friend, 2011, p. 470; Hardman, Drew, & Egan, 2014; P.L. 95–561, Title IX, [a]; Reis & Hou-sand, 2008, p. 66; Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 468); these include the following:
1. Intellectual ability. We have defined intelligence as the ability to understand, to learn, and to deal with new, unknown situations. Gifted people may have an exceptional intellectual ability.
2. Specific academic aptitude. Gifted people may ex-cel in some academic area or areas. Academic di-mensions, of course, include educational studies related to math, science, verbal expression, and social sciences, among many others.
3. Creative or productive thinking. Creativity in-volves “the capacity for innovation, originality, expressiveness, and imagination and the ability to manipulate ideas in fluent, flexible, elaborate, and original ways” (Friend, 2011, p. 471). Productive thinking concerns generating ideas that are ex-ceptionally useful, practical, or applicable.
4. Leadership ability. “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of in-dividuals to achieve a common goal” (Northouse, 2010, p. 3). Thus, a gifted individual may be ex-ceptionally good at influencing others.
5. Visual and performing arts. People may be gifted in artistic ways. They may be exceptionally ad-ept at creating visual displays such as painting or sculpture. Or they may be unusually talented in performing theatrical or physical activity.
Once identified, gifted people can be nurtured to develop their gift or talent. Although not con-sistently available due to differences in funding and philosophy, a range of educational services may be offered to gifted students (Smith & Tyler, 2010).
In the past, IQ was often the only means used to identify gifted people. However, as the definition of giftedness implies, it is now one of a range of mea-sures used. Areas of giftedness might include analytic
(the ability to carefully analyze a problem or issue, dissect it, and understand it—a quality measured by traditional intelligence tests); synthetic (the ability to be insightful, creative, perceptive, and imaginative—qualities often manifested by people excelling in the arts and sciences); and practical (the ability to func-tion exceptionally well in daily life experiences and situations—a quality often demonstrated by people with flourishing careers) (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2012, p. 431; Sternberg, 1997). About 6–10 percent of all American students are consid-ered gifted (NAGC, 2016b). However, note that the actual numbers may vary radically, depending on the definition of giftedness used.
IQ tests also can be used as an indicator for peo-ple who fall below the “normal” range of intelligence so that they can receive the special help they need. A later section will address this in depth.
Other Potential Problems with IQ ScoresThe use of IQ tests alone to categorize people is problematic for several reasons. One is cultural bias, discussed in Spotlight 3.6. Another is that the defini-tion of IQ is arbitrary. At its most basic level, an IQ score reflects how well people perform on an IQ test. It does not provide a reliable indication of compe-tence in the real world.
Another problem with IQ tests is that placing IQ labels on people may become self-fulfilling proph-ecies. An individual with a low IQ score may stop trying to reach his or her true potential. A person labeled with a high IQ may develop an inappropri-ately superior, even arrogant, attitude. We all prob-ably know people like this.
Another potential problem with IQ scores is that they do not take motivation into account. A person with a lower IQ score who works hard and is mo-tivated may attain much higher levels of achieve-ment and success than a person with a higher IQ who is not motivated to use it. Simply having the ability does not necessarily mean that it will be put to use.
Many aspects of an individual’s personality, ability to interact socially, and adapt to society are not directly related to IQ. In effect, IQ is only one facet of an individual. People have numerous other strengths and weaknesses that make up their unique personalities. Each person is an individual whose worth and dignity merit appreciation.
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14 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 11 Analyze Intellectual Disabilities and the Importance of Empowerment
Intellectual disability (formerly referred to as mental retardation) is a condition characterized by intellectual function-ing that is significantly below average and accompanying deficits in adaptive functioning, both of which occurred before reaching adulthood (Ameri-
can Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013a, 2013b). Note two important points about the terms intel-lectual disability and mental retardation. First, the term intellectual disability has a less negative con-notation than the term mental retardation. Second, it is important to refer to people with intellectual
EP 2a EP 2c
disabilities as people before referring to any dis-ability they might have. For example, referring to them as intellectually, mentally, or cognitively challenged people tends to emphasize the disability because the disability is stated first. Our intent is simply to respect their right to equality and dig-nity. (Note that some states may use other terms for people with intellectual disabilities. Ter ms might include cognitive impairment, cognitive dis-ability, mental impairment, mental disability, or mental handicap; more consistent and positive changes in terminology should occur over time to better understand and appreciate these people [Friend, 2011, p. 235].)
Individuals with intellectual disabilities, to some degree, are unable intellectually to grasp concepts and function as well and as quickly as their peers. The exact prevalence of intellectual disability is
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.6
LO 10 explain cultural Biases and iQ testIt is critical to be vigilant about the potential for cultural biases in IQ tests. White middle- a n d u p p e r- c l a s s c h i l d re n h i s t o r i c a l ly have had an unfair advantage over non-white children on these tests. Similarly, urban children have had advantages over rural children, and middle-class children over lower-class children in general. Biases
can involve the use of words, concepts, and contexts that are more familiar to some children than to others.
For example, Kail and Cavanaugh (2013, p. 219) discuss the question, “A conductor is to an orchestra as a teacher is to what?” They pose the possible answers as “book,” “school,” “class,” or “eraser.” Children who have been exposed to the concept of “orchestra,” perhaps having attended a concert, are more likely to provide the correct answer than children who have little or no idea what orchestras or conductors are.
What is considered significant by members of a culture can influence what children consider important, and hence how they answer questions on IQ tests. Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2011) comment on how other cultures perceive the concept of intelligence differently by emphasizing other aspects of human behavior and existence:
For example, the Taiwanese conception of intelligence emphasizes how one understands and relates to others, including when and how to show intelligence (R. J. Sternberg & Yang, 2003). In Zambia (Africa), parents
describe the intelligence of their children as including cognitive abilities as well as showing social responsibility, which is considered equally important (Serpell, 2003). In Micronesia, people demonstrate remarkable navigational skills as they sail long distances using only information from stars and sea currents (Ceci et al., 1997). These navigational abilities certainly indicate a high degree of intelligence that would not be assessed by traditional Western IQ tests. Thus, the definition of intelligence differs across cultures. (p. 291)
Even testing situations and children’s comfort level in them can affect IQ test results. Specific variables include the test-takers’ relationship with the test-giver, their ability to sit quietly and respond to instructions, and their understanding of the dynamics involved in taking tests successfully, such as going through the entire test first, answering the questions they know, pacing themselves, and then returning to the more difficult items so that they are able to complete most of the test (Ceci, 1991).
Much attention has been paid to cultural fairness in IQ tests. Culture-fair IQ tests try to include test items and terms that are familiar to children from as many cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds as possible. However, because a totally “culture-free” test (i.e., one with no culturally biased content at all) is impossible to achieve, it is important to remain sensitive to fairness and strive to make tests as “culture fair” as possible.
EP 2a EP 2c
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 141
unknown; however, it is estimated that between 7 and 8 million Americans of all ages, or one in ten families, are affected by a person with an intellectual disability (Administration for Community Living,
2016). The following sections will elaborate on the definition of intellectual disability, the significance of support systems, and what people who have intel-lectual disabilities are like (see Spotlight 3.7).
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.7
What are People with intellectual Disabilities like?There are huge differences in the capabilities of people who have intellectual disabilities, depending on their strengths and level of functioning. Therefore, it is important to maintain a strengths perspective and consider each person as an individual with his or her own special abilities and potential. Compared to people who have “normal” IQs, people with intellectual disabilities tend to experience deficits in six basic areas: attention, memory, language, self-regulation, motivation, and social development (Hallahan et al., 2012, p. 113). It is important to remember that not all people with intellectual disabilities have deficits in all areas.
This discussion on problems associated with intellectual disabilities is negatively oriented. It focuses on people’s deficits instead of their strengths. However, you need to understand where people with intellectual disabilities are likely to experience problems in order to emphasize and enhance their strengths in those and other areas.
People with intellectual disabilities may have trouble paying attention to ongoing activities and events as carefully as other people do. They may be easily distracted or pay attention to things other than what they are supposed to attend to.
Research has established that people with intellectual disabilities experience difficulty with memory, the second problem area. They may be weaker in their ability to remember things recently told to them or experienced by them. Complex ideas are more difficult for them to retain than simpler concepts.
Language development is the third area of difficulty that is evident in many people with intellectual disabilities. They usually take longer to master language skills. They will probably require more time to understand ideas and concepts. They may display speech and pronunciation problems.
Self-regulation, a fourth problematic area, is a person’s ability to organize thinking and plan ahead. People with intellectual disabilities may have less ability to organize their thoughts. For instance, when “normal” students take essay exams, they may use acronyms (words formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts of some complex term or succession of steps) to help them remember a series of steps or ideas. People with intellectual disabilities likely would not.
The fifth area of possible difficulty is motivation. People with intellectual disabilities generally do poorly in school
compared with their peers and may develop a long history of defeat and failure. If they think that they will fail no matter how hard they try, they may not try to succeed at all.
Poor social development is a sixth area of potential difficulty. This may be due to low levels of self-esteem and poor self-concept. It may be due to having more difficulty learning how to respond appropriately in social situations. It also may result in more disruptive behavior than that of their peers. If children with intellectual disabilities have difficulties in learning, especially in academic settings, disruptive behavior may be a way for them to get attention or amuse themselves.
People with intellectual disabilities are often placed in categories called mild, moderate, severe, and profound according to the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (5th ed.) (DSM-5) (APA, 2013a). The following profiles of each category are based on descriptions in DSM-5. The intent is to provide you with some general ideas about the types of support people may need.
The majority of people with intellectual disabilities fall within the mild category. In the past, these people were referred to as “educable” in that they often achieved academic skills up to a sixth-grade level. As preschoolers, people with mild intellectual disabilities often develop social and communication skills, demonstrate minimal sensory or motor impairment, and generally fit in fairly well with their peers. In fact, the majority of people with intellectual disabilities are very similar to everybody else except that they are a bit slower in learning and don’t progress quite as far as others in the “normal” population. Their limitations usually become more evident as they advance in school. As adults, they usually gain employment “in jobs that don’t emphasize conceptual skills” (APA, 2013a, p. 34). They often require assistance in making health and legal decisions, and frequently need support to fulfill the necessary functions involved in raising a family.
People with moderate intellectual disabilities progress more slowly in academic pursuits and require more assistance. They tend to view issues and experiences more concretely than their peers. They likely have difficulty in reading and in managing finances by themselves. These people “show marked differences from peers in social and communicative behavior across development” (APA, 2013a, p. 35). They usually can form successful relationship ties with family members and
(continued)
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142 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.7 (continued)
with friends having abilities similar to their own. They tend to have difficulty accurately interpreting social cues. “Significant social and communicative support is needed in work settings for success” (APA, 2013a, p.35). They generally can assume responsibility for daily self-care tasks, but require substantial teaching and support in order to master household tasks. They can gain employment in jobs requiring “limited conceptual and communication skills,” but need significant support.
Additionally, they require substantial help in “scheduling, transportation, health benefits, and money management” (APA, 2013a, p. 35). They can enjoy a range of recreational activities with adequate “supports and learning opportunities” (APA, 2013a, p. 35). They can potentially function well in their communities with enough support, usually living in a supervised environment.
People with severe intellectual disabilities develop little, if any, speech in early childhood. As childhood progresses, they can develop some speech capability and skills to take personal care of themselves. Conceptual and problem-solving skills are lacking. They generally can eventually develop very basic skills in uncomplicated social speech. They can enjoy family members and other people with whom they’re familiar. People with severe intellectual disabilities require substantial help in virtually all areas of life including decision making and self-care tasks. They need extensive, ongoing support in their daily life activities and living arrangements. They often live with their families or in some other closely supervised, structured setting.
People with profound intellectual disabilities most often have additional motor and sensory problems that prevent them from manipulating many objects effectively. They view the world as a very concrete place. They have major difficulties with conceptualization and formulation of ideas. Communication is primarily through nonverbal gestures instead of words, although they may learn to understand some simple words and directions. They can experience pleasure through interaction with family members and familiar others close to them. People with profound intellectual disabilities are “dependent on others for all aspects of daily physical care, health, and safety,” although many can learn to partake in some activities with assistance (e.g., removing dishes from the dinner table) (APA, 2013a, p. 36). They can generally enjoy and participate in basic recreational ventures with extensive supervision. Such pursuits might include listening to music, taking walks, watching television, or being in a swimming pool.
People with intellectual disabilities have strengths and weaknesses just like the rest of us. Each is a unique individual. Most people with intellectual disabilities are pretty much like everybody else, but they have less intellectual potential. They have similar feelings, joys, and needs. And they have rights.
Empowerment is essential for people with disabilities. Here, Gena Killinger, an athlete from Nebraska, raises her hand in victory after winning a 25-yard backstroke in a Special Olympics event held in Ames, Iowa.
AP
Imag
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mes
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une,
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Defining Intellectual DisabilityThere are three major parts in the definition of in-tellectual disability (referred to as mental retardation) in the DSM-5 (APA, 2013a). First, a person must score significantly below average in general intellec-tual functioning. Although this determination was historically based on IQ tests, it now involves “both clinical assessment and individualized, standardized intelligence testing” (APA, 2013a, p. 33). In general,
intellectual disability is thought to characterize peo-ple whose intelligence levels fall at least two standard deviations below the norm; this means having an IQ of 70 or below (APA, 2013b).
A second part of the definition of intellectual dis-ability involves impairment in adaptive functioning, that is, how a person thinks about his or her situation, interacts with others, and masters daily life activities (APA, 2013a). Adaptive activities fall within three
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 14 3
dimensions—conceptual, social, and practical (APA, 2013b). The conceptual dimension concerns the abil-ity to think, remember, solve problems, and perform academically. The social dimension involves the abil-ity to communicate with others, form relationships, and understand people’s emotional and other needs. The practical dimension entails conducting necessary daily tasks like attending to self-care and personal hygiene, holding a job, managing money, and fulfill-ing other educational and work responsibilities.
The third part of the definition of intellectual disability concerns the fact that the condition is identified or diagnosed “during the developmen-tal period,” that is, the time before a person reaches adulthood (APA, 2013b). In the past, this meant turning age 18 but now other factors such as adap-tive functioning may be taken into account (APA, 2013b). One intent of this part of the definition is to rule out people who become brain damaged (e.g., in a car accident) or experience some other mental im-pairment when they are adults. In those incidences, people would probably fall under other DSM-5 diag-nostic categories.
Spotlight 3.7 recognizes the four traditional cat-egories of intellectual disability, which historically emphasized IQ scores. The categories are noted here with their traditional IQ scores (APA, 2000, p. 42):
Mild: IQ of 50–55 to approximately 70
Moderate: IQ of 35–40 to 50–55
Severe: IQ of 20–25 to 35–40
Profound: IQ below 20 or 25
The ranges in each category reflected the vary-ing results that can be attained on different IQ tests, the 5 percent measurement error in the tests them-selves, and the importance of taking adaptive func-tioning into account (APA, 2000). For example, a person scoring 40 on an IQ test but suffering from serious deficits in adaptive ability might be placed in the “Severe” category. On the other hand, another person scoring 40 who has many adaptive strengths might be placed in the “Moderate” category.
Highlighting adaptive ability and achievement al-lows the individual to be evaluated as a unique func-tioning being. Older definitions of intellectual disability placed greater importance on IQ alone, which does not necessarily provide an accurate picture of someone’s ability to function and make decisions on a daily basis.
The new DSM-5 is the primary diagnostic tool used in the United States for mental and emotional
disorders. New diagnostic procedures stress both clinical assessment of intellectual ability and exten-sive evaluation of adaptive functioning in addition to standardized IQ tests. The American Associa-tion on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD, 2013) also emphasizes the use of adaptive skill areas when evaluating an individual’s ability to function independently. Additionally, the AAIDD (2013) stresses that the community social environ-ment, “linguistic diversity,” and “cultural differ-ences in the way people communicate” and behave be taken into account when assessing intellectual disability.
Ethical Question 3.3
EP 1
Do people with intellectual disabilities have the right to have children?
The Significance of Empowerment by Support SystemsIn addition to highlighting adaptive skill areas, it is important to evaluate the configuration and inten-sity of support an individual needs—“intermittent,” “limited,” “extensive,” or “pervasive”—besides con-sidering IQ and adaptive skill acquisition (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2009, p. 148; Kirk, Gallagher, Coleman, & Anastasiow, 2012; Lightfoot, 2009a). Intermittent support is the occasional provision of support whenever it is needed. People needing only intermittent support function fairly well by themselves; they need help from family, friends, or service-providing agencies only sporadically. This usually occurs when they are experiencing periods of stress or major life transitions (such as a health crisis or job loss). Limited support is intensive help or training provided for a limited time to teach spe-cific skills, such as job skills, or to assist in major life transitions such as moving from one’s parental home. Extensive support is long-term, continuous support that usually occurs daily and affects major areas of life both at home and at work. Finally, per-vasive support is continuous, consistent, and concen-trated. People need pervasive support for ongoing survival.
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14 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
It’s important to remember that identification of the support level needed “must not limit the plan-ning and opportunities developed” for a person with intellectual disabilities (Kirk et al., 2012, p. 180). These people are individuals who may demonstrate a wide range of strengths. The emphasis on, discovery of, and use of such strengths is an ongoing process.
The support systems perspective coincides well with social work values in at least four ways (DeWeaver, 1995). First, instead of labeling people as having mild, moderate, severe, or profound intel-lectual disabilities, it stresses people’s ability to func-tion and achieve for themselves with various levels of support from others. It looks at what people can do with some help, rather than what they cannot do. Second, it refutes the sole focus on medical labeling and related issues as the primary concern. Medical labels are not necessarily useful when determining what you can do to help people. For example, label-ing a person as having severe intellectual disability or mental retardation is not as useful as saying that this person requires extensive support. Third, the support systems perspective shifts the primary assessment
focus from IQ to adaptive skills. Fourth, because of its focus on individual strengths, it encourages assess-ment and emphasis on ethnic, cultural, and linguistic differences and qualities. The professionals involved in assessment are not limited to examining one or two variables. Rather, they are encouraged to explore virtually any aspect of the individual’s environment.
Macro-System Responses to Intellectual DisabilitiesThe programs available for people with intellectual disabilities depend on policies that dictate where public funds should and will be spent. Once again, we see how policy (such as federal and state laws) af-fects social work practice. Policies provide the rules for how organizations can spend money and what services they can provide. Social workers must do their jobs within the context of the organizations they work for. Spotlight 3.8 discusses current legisla-tion concerning people with disabilities.
Services for people who have intellectual disabili-ties or designated other disabilities are paid for pri-marily by federal and state programs, the majority
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.8
the americans with Disabilities act: the Pursuit of social and economic Justice
The intent of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 was to provide the millions of Americans who have disabilities w i t h a c c e s s t o p u b l i c p l a c e s, wo r k settings, and “the mainstream of public life” (Jimenez, 2010; Smolowe, 1995a, p. 54; U.S. Department of Justice, 2005). “Unemployment and economic stress are
major concerns” for people with disabilities (Segal, 2010, p. 112). The ADA “was intended as a sweeping civil rights law that works to eliminate discrimination against people with disabilities in the areas of employment, public accommodations, state and local government, transportation and communications” (Lightfoot, 2009b, p. 449; U.S. Department of Justice, 2005).
The ADA includes under its umbrella people who have intellectual disabilities, other developmental disabilities (various serious chronic conditions), and physical disabilities. “An individual with a disability is defined by the ADA as a person who has a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a person who has a history or record of such an impairment,
or a person who is perceived by others as having such an impairment. The ADA does not specifically name all of the impairments that are covered” (U.S. Department of Justice, 2005).
The ADA is one attempt by a national macro system to improve the lives of people with disabilities and provide them with greater social and economic justice. The ADA consists of four major provisions (U.S. Department of Justice, 2005). Title I forbids job and employment discrimination against people with disabilities and requires employers to provide “the full range of employment-related opportunities available to others.” It “prohibits discrimination in recruitment, hiring, promotions, training, pay, social activities, and other privileges of employment.” It also restricts an employer’s questions about a person’s disability prior to making a job offer.
Title I requires employers with 15 or more employees to provide qualified individuals with disabilities an equal opportunity to benefit from the full range of employment-related opportunities available to others. For example, it prohibits discrimination in recruitment, hiring, promotions, training, pay, social activities, and other privileges of
EP 2a EP 2c
(continued)
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 14 5
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.8 (continued)
employment. It restricts questions that can be asked about an applicant’s disability before a job offer is made, and it requires that employers make reasonable accommodation to the known physical or mental limitations of otherwise qualified individuals with disabilities, unless it results in undue hardship.
Title II requires all state and local governments to provide equal opportunities to people with disabilities. Applicable services include those involved in “public education, employment, transportation, recreation, health care, social services, courts, voting, and town meetings.” These governing bodies are also required to make buildings accessible, modify policies to avoid discrimination, and provide communication channels for people with “hearing, vision, or speech disabilities.” Title II also prohibits “public transportation services, such as city buses and public rail transit (e.g., subways, commuter rails, Amtrak)” from discriminating against people with disabilities. This often entails making services accessible or providing individualized transportation when needed.
Title III requires that “businesses and nonprofit service providers” that offer goods and services to the public provide equal opportunities to people with disabilities. These include “restaurants, retail stores, hotels, movie theaters, private schools, convention centers, doctors’ offices, homeless shelters, transportation depots, zoos, funeral homes, day care centers, and recreation facilities including sports stadiums and fitness clubs.” Such accommodation often includes making locations accessible and making opportunities (e.g., for credentials requiring testing) or information available to people with disabilities.
Title IV requires that state and national telecommunication relay services accommodate people with hearing and speech impairments. These entities must allow people with such disabilities communications access 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. “Title IV also requires closed captioning of federally funded public service announcements.”
In summary, the ADA requires “universal access to public buildings, transit systems, and communications networks” (Smolowe, 1995a, p. 54). Significant gains have been made in terms of curb ramps, wide bathroom stalls, and public vehicles with lifts for wheelchairs for persons with physical disabilities.
However, employers and public agencies must make only “reasonable accommodation.” In reality, they are not compelled to provide such access or encouragement if the ensuing costs would result in “undue hardship,” often in the form of “undue financial and administrative burdens.” Because of the vagueness in ter minology and lack of specification regarding how changes must be implemented, gains have been limited (Karger & Stoesz, 2013). What do the words reasonable accommodation, undue hardship, and undue administrative and financial burdens mean? What kind of accommodation is reasonable? How much money is unduly excessive? How can discrimination against capable people with intellectual or other specific disabilities be prohibited and equal opportunity enforced?
People with disabilities often experience “exclusion from typical activity and opportunity afforded to those who are not considered disabled” (DePoy & Gilson, 2004, p. 41; Mackelprang, 2008; Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009). Consider the following economic facts about people with disabilities (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016):
● Only 17.5 percent are employed. ● The median earnings for people with a disability are $21,232
compared to $31,324 for people without a disability. ● Twenty-eight percent of people with disabilities live in
poverty compared to 12 percent without a disability.
Additionally, bear in mind the following about people with disabilities (National Organization on Disability, 2004, 2011; Patchner & DeWeaver, 2008):
● Twenty-two percent report that they have been victims of discrimination in some situation.
● Twenty-two percent of those who are employed report having been victimized by discrimination on the job.
● The extent of disability directly impacts quality of life in virtually every aspect of living. Jimenez (2010) describes more recent ADA amendments:
The ADA Amendments Act of 2008 was designed to enlarge coverage of the ADA by overturning a series of U.S. Supreme Court cases, which limited the number of persons who could demonstrate they were disabled. These new amendments call for “the definition of disability to be construed in favor of broad coverage of individuals,” shifting the burden of proof to those who would deny disabled persons the protection of the law. The amendments favor broad coverage of conditions that interfere with activities of daily living, as well as thinking and learning, working, lifting, and speaking. Unfortunately, the amendments did not clarify the important question in the ADA of what are “reasonable accommodations” that employers must make for… persons [with disabilities]. Under the amendments, Congress recognized that… persons [with disabilities] are often denied the right to participate fully in society because of social prejudice, as well as due to the existence of societal and institutional barriers. (p. 193)
The battle for equal access and opportunity for people with disabilities has not been won. Much of the public attention to the act has focused on people with physical disabilities, many of whom require wheelchairs for transportation. Where do people with intellectual and other developmental disabilities fit in? The ADA “will be successful only to the extent that these individuals [with disabilities] and those who advocate on their behalf learn about the ADA and use it as a means to ensure employment [and other] opportunities” (Kopels, 1995, p. 345).
For additional information, go to the ADA homepage at http://www.ada.gov.
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14 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of which are administered through programs under the U.S. Department of Health and Human Ser-vices. The rest are administered through the Depart-ment of Education.
Here, we address two issues involved in develop-ing programs and providing services for people with intellectual disabilities: deinstitutionalization and community-based services. The important thing to remember throughout our discussion is that intel-ligence, although an important variable in terms of daily living and ability, is only one of many factors affecting people’s lives. Limited intelligence may re-duce some of the alternatives available to an individ-ual. However, other alternatives are available for that person to construct a rich, satisfying, and fulfilling life. A basic task of the social worker might be to help that person identify alternatives and weigh the various consequences of each.
DeinstitutionalizationDeinstitutionalization is the process of relocating people who need a significant level of care (e.g., peo-ple with intellectual disabilities, physical disabilities, or mental illness) from a structured institutional resi-dence to a typical community setting. An assump-tion is that supportive community-based services and resources will take the institution’s place in meeting people’s needs.
Deinstitutionalization is supported by a number of rationales (Segal, 2008). First, the oppression caused by institutional living has been extensively documented. Second, costs of institutionalizing people are high. Third, social research continues to document that total institutionalization is frequently ineffective. Fourth, social values have increasingly emphasized the civil rights of all citizens, including people with intellectual disabilities; institutionaliza-tion severely inhibits civil rights. Fifth, other policies have been developed to provide aid to people in ways other than placing them in large residential facilities.
Historically, most federal money has been spent on maintaining people with intellectual disabilities in institutional settings. Worse, most of these institu-tions were actually intended for housing people who had mental illnesses (Segal, 2008). Current legisla-tion, however, supports deinstitutionalization and the development of alternative services.
Concerns about deinstitutionalization have focused on lack of sufficient resources to provide adequate services and care outside of institutions (Hallahan et al., 2012; Segal, 2008). If deinstitutionalization is
to work effectively, community, state, and national macro systems must invest enough resources to provide adequate levels of support for people with varying needs.
Community-Based ServicesIf a trend is to move people with intellectual dis-abilities out of institutional settings and into com-munities, the subsequent question is “Where?” Hallahan and his colleagues (2012) describe commu-nity residential facilities (CRFs) (also referred to as community-based residential facilities [CBRFs]) as
group homes [that] . . . accommodate small groups (three to ten people) in houses under the direction of “house parents.” Placement can be permanent, or it can serve as a temporary arrangement to prepare the individuals for independent living. In either case, the purpose of the CRF is to teach independent living skills in a more normal setting than a large institution offers.
Some professionals question whether CRFs go far enough in offering opportunities for integration into the community. They recommend supported living, in which persons with intellectual disabilities receive supports to live in more natural, noninstitutional settings, such as their own home or apartment. (pp. 125–127) (emphasis in original)
The key is to maximize self-determination while still providing adequate, necessary support. Much may de-pend on the individual’s potential level of functioning.
An important concept related to community-based services is normalization. This means ar-ranging the environmental context for people with intellectual disabilities so that it is as “normal” as possible. The lives of people who have intellectual disabilities should be as similar to those of people in the “normal,” overall population as they can be.
Ethical Question 3.4
EP 1
Should people with intellectual disabilities be mainstreamed (i.e., be integrated into regular school classes) or be provided with separate special education to meet their special needs? What are the pros and cons of each approach?
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 147
Social Work RolesSocial workers can perform many roles when work-ing with people who have intellectual or other devel-opmental disabilities. Social workers can function as enablers, helping people with intellectual disabilities and their families make decisions and solve prob-lems. Social workers can be brokers, linking clients to the resources (e.g., transportation, job placements, or group homes) they need in order to go about their daily lives. Educator is another major role. People who have intellectual disabilities may need informa-tion about employment, interpersonal relationships, and even personal hygiene. Social workers can also function as coordinators who oversee a range of sup-port services that clients need.
Social workers can also fulfill roles within the macro-system context. They can assume administrative functions as general managers within agencies provid-ing services to clients and their families. In this capac-ity, they can evaluate the effectiveness of the services provided. Are clients getting what they really need? Is service provision as efficient as possible? Finally, social workers can serve as initiators, negotiators, and advo-cates. In communities and states where needed services are not readily available or are nonexistent, practitio-ners can work with organizational, community, and government macro systems to change policies so that clients can have access to what they need.
Spotlight 3.9 discusses the importance of empow-ering people with disabilities to advocate for them-selves and get control of their own lives.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.9
empowerment and a consumer-Direct approachMackelprang and Salsgiver (2009) call fo r s o c i a l wo rke r s a n d o t h e r h u m a n services professionals to emphasize the empowerment of people with disabilities. They stress the importance of identifying and focusing on the strengths and abilities of people with disabilities and the necessity of supporting their self-advocacy. They
focus on the need to recognize and appreciate human difference rather than problems in functioning. Such an empowerment stance highlights the following six principles:
1. “People with disabilities are capable, have potential, and are important members of society.
2. Devaluation and a lack of resources, not individual pa-thology, are the primary obstacles facing persons with disabilities.
3. Disability, like race and gender, is a social construct, and intervention with people with disabilities must be political in nature.
4. There is a Disability culture and history that professionals should be aware of in order to facilitate the empowerment of persons with disabilities.
5. There is a joy and vitality to be found in disability.6. Persons with disabilities have the right to self-determination
and the right to guide professionals’ involvement in their lives” (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 2009, pp. xv–xvii).
Lightfoot (2009b) elaborates on the importance of consumer-directed services (services that maximize the choice and self-determination of consumers, in this case, people with disabilities):
A growing trend in the area of disability policy is for people with disabilities to direct their own services. The move toward consumer-directed services, also known as consumer-controlled services, emanates from the concern that agency-controlled, services often do not meet the individual needs of people with disabilities and further increase the dependence on professionals and systems that people with disabilities experience. When agencies control services, people with disabilities have little choice over the personnel providing services, including services that are quite personal in nature. Consumer-directed services allow people with disabilities to hire, train, supervise, and fire their own staff with public money . . . [T]here are consumer-directed demonstration projects across the country that allow people of all ages who have disabilities to control the services they use (Benjamin, Matthias, & Franke, 2000; Mahoney, Simone, & Simon-Rusinowitz, 2000). Public social services policies for people with disabilities are likely to increasingly allow consumer-directed options, particularly as baby boomers age and desire more control over the supports they receive. (p. 457)
EP 2a EP 2c
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14 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 12 Examine Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are commonly de-fined in one of two ways—the federal definition established in P. L. 94–142 and the definition adopted by the National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities (NJCLD) (Friend, 2011; Hallahan et al., 2012). The federal definition is as follows:
Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, which disorder may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia . . . Disorders not included [:] . . . Specific learning disability does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage. (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [IDEA], 20 U.S.C. §1401 [2004], 20 CFR §300.8[c][10]) (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.)
The NJCLD is an organization made up of repre-sentatives from a range of professional organizations that deal with students who have learning disabilities (Hallahan et al., 2012). The NJCLD found the above-mentioned federal definition lacking in several ways (Hallahan et al., 2012). First, the definition makes no reference to causal factors, whereas the NJCLD con-siders “central nervous system dysfunction within the individual” as the cause (p. 187). Second, there is no mention of adults and the fact that a learning disabil-ity is a lifelong condition. Third, the definition fails to indicate that people with learning disabilities often ex-perience difficulties regulating their own behavior (in-cluding problem solving) and face problematic issues in social interaction. Fourth, the definition includes terms that are hard to define and understand (e.g., “perceptual handicaps” or “minimal brain dysfunc-tion”). Fifth, the definition includes spelling, which NJCLD feels falls under the umbrella of writing. Sixth, it fails to note that learning disabilities may oc-cur concurrently with other disabilities (Friend, 2011).
EP 2a EP 2c
Therefore, the NJCLD (2010) defines learning disabilities as follows:
Learning disabilities is a general term that refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by significant difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities. These disorders are intrinsic to the individual, presumed to be due to central nervous system dysfunction, and may occur across the life span. Problems in self-regulatory behaviors, social perception, and social interaction may exist with learning disabilities but do not by themselves constitute a learning disability. Although learning disabilities may occur concomitantly with other handicapping conditions (for example, sensory impairment, mental retardation, serious emotional disturbance), or with extrinsic influences (such as cultural differences, insufficient or inappropriate instruction), they are not the remit of those conditions or influences.
Both of these definitions are complex. Friend (2011) cites the following fundamental dimensions that characterize learning disabilities in general:
Learning disabilities comprise a heterogeneous g ro u p o f d i s o rd e rs. S t u d e n t s w i t h l e a r n i n g disabilities may have significant reading problems (dyslexia), difficulty in mathematics (dyscalculia), o r a d i s o rd e r re l a t e d t o w r i t t e n l a n g u a ge (dysgraphia). They may have difficulty with social perceptions, motor skills, or memory. Learning disabilities can affect young children, students in school, and adults. No single profile of a person with a learning disability can be accurate because of the interindividual differences [relating to an individual’s unique interacting traits] in the disorder.
● Learning disabilities are intrinsic to the indi-vidual and have a neurobiological basis. Learn-ing disabilities exist because of some type of dysfunction in the brain, not because of exter-nal factors such as limited experience or poor teaching.
● Learning disabilities are characterized by unex-pected underachievement. That is, the disorder exists when a student’s academic achievement is significantly below her intellectual potential even after intensive, systematic interventions have been implemented to try to reduce the learning gap . . .
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 149
● Learning disabilities are not a result of other disorders or problems, but individuals with learning disabilities may have other special needs as well. For example, being deaf cannot be considered to be the basis for having a learn-ing disability. However, some students who are deaf also have learning disabilities. (Emphasis omitted.) (p. 129)
A learning disability is different from either intel-lectual disability or emotional disturbance. Rather,
learning disabilities entail a breakdown in processing information of some type. Difficulties involve either absorbing information in the first place or subse-quently using this information to communicate and participate in activities. Spotlight 3.10 describes some other disabilities that can have an impact on children.
Currently, 5 percent of all students enrolled in public, schools are identified as having a learning disability, with 42 percent of these students receiv-ing special education services (National Center for
other Disabilities that can affect childrenPeople with disabilities are at risk of being oppressed, discriminated against, ignored, ridiculed, and denied equal rights. Intellectual disabilities and learning disabilities are only two of the many disabilities that can affect children. Other disabilities arbitrarily mentioned here (considered developmental disabilities) include autistic spectrum disorders,
cerebral palsy, hearing problems, vision problems, and epilepsy.Autistic spectrum disorders (ASDs) “can cause significant
social, communication and behavioral challenges” (CDC, 2016). People with ASDs have brains that process information in ways unlike the brains of other people. Such a disorder reflects a lifelong condition that begins before age 3. Because ASDs involve a spectrum, people can experience aspects characterizing ASDs in different ways, ranging from mild to severe.
Due to recent changes in the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM V), several conditions that used to be diagnosed separately now are diagnosed under autism spectrum disorder, including autistic disorder, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified, and Asperger’s syndrome (CDC, 2016c).
People with ASDs typically demonstrate intense inner-directedness and a number of other symptoms (CDC, 2010b). These include difficulties in social skills, such as problems communicating and lack of normal emotional reactions to others, including attachment. They often have trouble talking about their own feelings or being aware of other people’s feelings. People with ASDs may avoid eye contact and being physically touched. They frequently demonstrate sensory distortion such as underreacting to pain and overreacting to noise. They may engage in repetitive, self-stimulating movements and behavior such as hand flapping, spinning their bodies, or rocking back and forth.
Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disability involving problems in muscular control and coordination resulting from damage to
the brain’s muscle-control centers before or during birth, or in the first years of life. Variations in muscle tone may result in movements that are very stiff and difficult, jerky, unbalanced, or floppy. Depending on the extent of damage, lack of balance, difficulty walking, tremors, involuntary movements, problems with precise motions, and difficulty talking or eating can result.
Hearing problems range from mild hearing losses to total deafness. They can result from any part of the ear not functioning normally and effectively. At least 50 percent of hearing problems in children are due to genetic causes, 25 percent due to “maternal infections during pregnancy, complications after birth, and head trauma,” and 25 percent due to unknown factors (CDC, 2015b). Symptoms in infants may involve failure to respond to sounds and in young children delayed speech.
Vision impairment “means that a person’s eyesight cannot be corrected to a ‘normal’ level. Vision impairment may be caused by a loss of visual acuity, where the eye does not see objects as clearly as usual. It may also be caused by a loss of visual field, where the eye cannot see as wide an area as usual without moving the eyes or turning the head” (CDC, 2015c). The severity of vision impairment may be classified in different ways. To be eligible for designated educational or federal programs in the United States, “blindness” is legally defined as visual acuity that is 20/200 or worse (i.e., when a person sees at 20 feet what a person with normal vision can see at 200 feet) (CDC, 2015c).
Epilepsy (commonly referred to as seizure disorder) consists of various disorders marked by disturbed electrical rhythms of the central nervous system and manifested in convulsive attacks. Symptoms range from periods of unconsciousness resembling daydreaming to violent convulsions.
Concurrent disabilities are also common. For example, a person with intellectual disabilities might also have a hearing impairment and/or epilepsy.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 3.10
EP 2aEP 2c
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15 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Learning Disabilities [NCLD], 2014). In addition, 66 percent of all students identified with learning disabilities are male, and more students with learn-ing disabilities are found to be living in poverty than children from the general population (NCLD, 2014).
It is often difficult to identify learning disabilities because the children in question function normally in other areas. The first clue is commonly a prob-lem in academic work. Other symptoms include a lack of attentiveness in classes; thoughtless, impul-sive, overly active behavior; frequent mood shifts; difficulties in remembering symbols; lack of motor coordination in writing or play activities; apparent problems in speaking or listening; and other difficul-ties in completing academic work. These difficulties are often vague enough to raise questions about a child’s emotional health, family life, motivation to achieve, or intellectual level. Once a learning disabil-ity is suspected, assessment may involve standardized tests, such as achievement tests, as well as a range of other evaluative approaches, administered by teach-ers, that focus on individual work and progress.
Common Problems Involved in Learning DisabilitiesAlthough people “with learning disabilities typically have average or above-average intelligence,” they may experience weaknesses in one or more areas; a learning disability may involve cognitive, academic, or social/emotional characteristics (Friend, 2011, p. 133). Remember that each individual is unique, and so could experience only one of these difficulties or any number of them. The categories often over-lap, as cognitive characteristics and processing prob-lems are integrally related to performance in other areas. Many examples and references presented here concern students and educational settings, because this is often where learning disabilities are discovered and addressed.
Cognitive CharacteristicsThese include “attention, perception, memory” (Friend, 2011, p. 133), and the organization and gen-eralization of information (Smith & Tyler, 2010). People with learning disabilities may have trouble paying attention to what they’re supposed to. They may be easily distracted by someone talking in the hallway or a noisy vehicle traveling down the street. They may have difficulty discriminating between
what is important in their immediate environment and what is not, what they should focus on and what they should ignore.
A second potential cognitive characteristic of a person with a learning disability involves perceptual difficulties. “Perception does not pertain to whether a student sees or hears but rather to how her brain interprets what is seen or heard and acts on it. For example, a student with a visual perception problem may see perfectly well the words on a page. However, when asked to read the words, the student may skip some of them” (Friend, 2011, p. 133; emphasis in original). Another scenario is that a student might perceive items or symbols reversed from what they really are.
Perceptual difficulties may also involve under-standing spatial relationships. Children might judge distances between one item and another inaccurately.
Perceptual problems may entail auditory process-ing difficulties. Some children have trouble paying attention to what is being said; the problem concerns being able to focus on the sounds most important in conveying meaning. Other children have trouble discriminating between one sound and another. For example, instead of hearing the word bed, a child may hear the word dead. The result is confusion for the child and difficulty in understanding and fol-lowing instructions. Still, other children have trou-ble recalling what they have heard being said in the correct sequence. This also makes it difficult to fol-low instructions correctly. They cannot understand the proper order in which they are supposed to do things. These children have special difficulties in re-membering content in a series format (e.g., months of the year).
A third cognitive characteristic for children with learning disabilities concerns memory and recall. Such children find it difficult to remember accu-rately what they have seen or heard. They commonly misspell words and forget where they placed objects.
A fourth cognitive trait often involved in learn-ing disabilities entails lacking the ability to organize information received and generalize it to other sce-narios. The organization of information concerns “classifying, associating, and sequencing” it so that it can be retrieved and generalized (Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 164). Generalization involves the application of what you’ve already learned to new situations. For example, if you learn how to organize informa-tion and write a paper in your English course, you
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 151
could generalize this skill to writing a paper in your social welfare policy course.
Academic CharacteristicsLearning disabilities involve cognitive characteristics and processing issues as were just discussed. How-ever, learning disabilities become more readily ap-parent in academic performance. Difficulties may surface in “reading, spoken language, written lan-guage, mathematics, or any combination of these” (Friend, 2011, p. 134; Hallahan et al., 2012). Aca-demic achievement deficits reflect the most common problem found in learning disabilities.
Some students have difficulty reading. They may have difficulties in processing that interfere with their ability to use language and reasoning. They might be unable to grasp the meanings of words or how words relate to each other in terms of grammat-ical position. They may have trouble comprehending what they’ve read, such as being unable to answer questions about a story after reading it. They often are unable to read efficiently and smoothly.
Oral language is another potential problematic area for people with learning disabilities. They may have difficulty “using the correct sounds to form words” (Friend, 2011, p. 134). They may not grasp grammar, discriminate among similar words, com-prehend the meaning of words, or participate read-ily in conversations (Friend, 2011). They may have trouble saying what they mean or would like to say. Sometimes this involves having difficulty remem-bering the words they want to say. Still others have trouble telling a story so that it makes sense or de-scribing an event or situation so that the listener can understand it.
Written language may also pose problems. Spell-ing, punctuation, capitalization, or understanding word forms (such as possessives or tenses) may be very difficult for them (Friend, 2011). As discussed earlier, students may have trouble organizing infor-mation into stories or term papers.
Still, other people with learning disabilities expe-rience extreme difficulty with math. They can have problems grasping basic math fundamentals, frac-tions, calculation, measurement, time, or geometry (Friend, 2011; Hallahan et al., 2012).
Having a learning disability may involve social emotional characteristics that increase the risk of social and emotional problems (Friend, 2011; Hallahan et al., 2012; Smith & Tyler, 2010). “For
example, [children with learning disabilities] . . . are at a greater risk for depression, social rejection, suicidal thoughts, and loneliness (Al-Yagon, 2007; Bryan, Burstein, & Ergul, 2004; Daniel et al., 2006; Maag & Reid, 2006; Margalit, 2006)” (Hallahan et al., 2012, p. 149).
Hallahan and his colleagues (2012) explain a pos-sible rationale for social/emotional characteristics:
One plausible reason for the social problems of some students with learning disabilities is that these students have deficits in social cognition. That is, they misread social cues and may misinterpret the feelings and emotions of others. Most children, for example, can tell when their behavior is bothering others. Students with learning disabilities sometimes act as if they are oblivious to the effect their behavior is having on their peers. They also have difficulty taking the perspective of others, of putting themselves in someone else’s shoes. (p. 150)
What Causes Learning Disabilities?The specific causes of learning disabilities in most children are unknown. As discussed earlier, it is thought the disabilities involve neurological dysfunc-tion (Hallahan et al., 2012).
Potential causes tend to fall into three categories (Hallahan et al., 2012). The first involves genetic fac-tors (Friend, 2011; Smith & Tyler, 2010). There is a tendency for learning disabilities to be more common in some families. This may be due to heredity or the family being exposed to some causative agent in the environment. Second, teratogens (substances that can cause damage such as drugs causing malforma-tion in the fetus) may cause learning disabilities. Mal-nutrition or poisoning by lead-based paint may also result in learning disabilities (Friend, 2011). Third, medical conditions such as premature birth or child-hood AIDS may be directly related to the develop-ment of learning disabilities (Hallahan et al., 2012).
More extensive research concerning these pos-sibilities is necessary to establish causes. The broad range of behaviors clustered under the title “learning disabilities” and their frequently vague descriptions make it difficult to pinpoint causal relationships.
Effects of Learning Disabilities on ChildrenLearning disabilities may psychologically affect chil-dren in several ways, including learned helplessness,
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152 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
low self-esteem, and lack of social competence. The learned helplessness reaction is one way of respond-ing to a learning disability (Friend, 2011: Hallahan et al., 2012; Smith & Tyler, 2010). This is the situa-tion where children have failed so often that they no longer want to try to learn; instead they depend on others to do things for them. In other words, they lose their motivation to try and just give up. Because the child refuses to take any new risks, potential progress is halted. Children may also use the fact that they cannot do some things to get out of doing other things they are capable of doing. The vague and complicated nature of learning disabilities does not help this situation. For example, a mother may ask her daughter to do her homework. The daugh-ter responds, “Gee, Mom, I don’t know how.” The daughter’s learning disability involves reading. Her homework is an arithmetic assignment that she has no more difficulty completing than her peers. How-ever, because of her learning disability, the daughter is perceived as being helpless in her mother’s eyes. As a result, the mother does not make the daughter do her homework.
Another possible reaction of a child with learning disabilities is low self-esteem (Friend, 2011; Smith & Tyler, 2010). These children are likely to see other children do things they cannot. Perhaps others make critical comments to them. Teachers and parents may show at least some impatience and frustration at the children’s inability to understand or perform in the areas affected by their learning disabilities. These children are likely to internalize their failures. The result may be that they feel inferior to others, and they may develop low self-esteem.
Research indicates that children with learning disabilities often suffer from a lack of social compe-tence (Burden, 2008; Friend, 2011; Gumpel, 2007; Smith & Tyler, 2010). “Social competence is the abil-ity to perceive and interpret social situations, gener-ate appropriate social responses, and interact with others” (Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 166). We’ve already established that some social/emotional learning dis-abilities may be related to the inability to interpret appropriately and accurately other people’s interac-tion and communication. It makes sense that this would affect one’s social competence and, in effect, popularity. For example, consider Melvin, a third grader, who’s waiting in line to leave the classroom and go out for recess. The other kids are excitedly talking about what games they’re going to play and
who’s going to get to the best playground equipment first. Melvin, oblivious, simply states, “I’m going to visit Uncle Harry on Sunday. He works for a cell phone company.” Needless to say, this does not grab his peers’ interest. Instead, they roll their eyes and start to make fun of him. Melvin doesn’t have a clue regarding what might have been a more appropriate thing to say in order to “fit in” better with his peers.
Note that certainly not all or even most people with learning disabilities experience these negative emotional and social effects. We’ve established that learning disabilities vary widely and are highly indi-vidualized. Many children with learning disabilities are happy, well adjusted, and well liked (Meadan & Halle, 2004). Much depends on the classroom cli-mate, the actions of teachers and other professionals, and the establishment of a positive, supportive class-room and family environment. At school, emphasis should be placed on mutual respect and productive learning instead of focusing only on problems.
What are the long-term effects of learning dis-abilities? Some people with learning disabilities may continue to experience problems in work and social adjustment as adults. However, how people with learning disabilities are treated and accepted is criti-cal in terms of their satisfaction and achievement as adults. Their coping skills and motivation are also important. The best predictors for successful transi-tion into adulthood include the following:
● “An extraordinary degree of perseverance ● The ability to set goals for oneself ● A realistic acceptance of weaknesses coupled with
an attitude of building on strengths ● Access to a strong network of social support from
friends and family ● Exposure to intensive and long-term educational
intervention ● High-quality on-the-job or postsecondary vocational
training ● A supportive work environment ● Being able to take control of their lives.” (Hallahan
et al., 2012, p. 162)
Interventions for Learning DisabilitiesThere are two dimensions to treatment for learning disabilities. One concerns the educational environ-ment and planning. The second involves parents’ and others’ treatment of a person with learning dis-abilities in the home and other social settings.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 15 3
Educational treatment for children with learn-ing disabilities focuses on designing an individual-ized educational program for the child to emphasize strengths and minimize weaknesses. For a child with a visual perceptual disorder, emphasis might be placed on providing material that the child can hear rather than see. For example, instead of reading an assignment in a textbook, the child might be given an audio recording of the assignment. Another means of tailoring an individualized educational program is breaking down tasks into smaller, more workable units so that children will more likely un-derstand the process and achieve success.
Within the educational context, cognitive train-ing and direct instruction are two major approaches to individualized instruction (Hallahan et al., 2012, pp. 151–154). Cognitive training is a method that fo-cuses on procedures to teach children with learning disabilities how to change their patterns of thinking by emphasizing three tactics: “(1) changing thought processes, (2) providing strategies for learning, and (3) teaching self-initiative” (p. 151). The emphasis is on changing thinking patterns rather than observ-able external behavior.
One specific cognitive training technique is self-instruction, the process of making “students aware of the various stages of problem-solving tasks while they are performing them and to bring behavior un-der verbal control” (Hallahan et al., 2012, p. 151). Here, the idea is to develop the child’s ability to at-tend to a task by breaking it up into a series of steps, modeling the task for the child, and then carefully supervising until he or she learns the process. For example, a five-step procedure for learning how to solve math word problems entails “saying the prob-lem out loud, looking for important words and cir-cling them, drawing pictures to help explain what was happening, writing the math sentence, and writ-ing the answer” (Hallahan et al., 2012, p. 152).
A second major approach to individualized in-struction is direct instruction. This method, usually used to improve math and reading skills, emphasizes drilling and practicing. It stresses “maximizing not only the quantity of instruction students receive but also the quality” (Friend, 2011, p. 152). Teachers in-struct small groups of children with clearly specified lessons and provide them with immediate feedback, correcting wrong answers and praising right ones.
Outside the educational arena, children with learning disabilities need help within their family
and other social settings. Some of the suggestions for helping children in educational settings also ap-ply to many social contexts. For example, the devel-opment of self-esteem and a positive self-concept is important in both educational and social environ-ments (Raines, 2006). First, the positive things that children do should be emphasized. Problems are easy to see, but good behaviors and accomplish-ments often go unnoticed. Second, children should feel loved not for their behavior, but rather for whom they are. Third, confidence can be developed in chil-dren by giving them responsibility for things they are capable of accomplishing. Success at tasks helps them develop faith in themselves. Fourth, compari-sons to others and what they accomplish should be avoided. The child’s own accomplishments should be the focus of attention. Finally, structure in the form of clear guidelines for behavior is helpful. If the child knows what is acceptable and what is not, he or she is less likely to make mistakes. The child will also probably respond to the fact that someone cares enough to put forth the effort to provide structure.
Other forms of treatment are also used to en-hance social functioning in families with a child who has learning disabilities. Educating both the child with a learning disability and those around that person can help all involved understand what the disability entails and modify their expectations ac-cordingly. Individual and family counseling can im-prove communication and increase family members’ understanding of how others view the disability. It can also help them develop problem-solving strate-gies to improve a child’s behavior and cope with in-terpersonal irritations.
Policies to Achieve Social Justice for Children Who Have Learning and Other DisabilitiesMajor legislation has positively affected educa-tional programming for children with learning and other disabilities in the past few decades (Lightfoot, 2009b; Mackelprang, 2008). Mackelprang and Sals-giver (2009) explain:
The All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 is one of the few pieces of legislation known to professionals in human services and education by its original number, Pub. L. No. 94-142. The All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 went through several levels of evolution and was renamed the Individuals with
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15 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, and most recently the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, which Congress last modified in 2004 . . . Individuals from birth up through the age of twenty-one years are covered under this historic act. IDEA stipulates that “free appropriate public education” be provided at public expense to all children, including children with disabilities from age three through twenty-one years. The education of children with disabilities should be provided in the most open and “normal” environment possible (the least restrictive environment). When children need to be diagnosed, be evaluated, and receive prescriptions, the diagnosis, evaluation, and prescription should not produce stigmatization and discrimination. Parents and the child need to be primary players in any remedial or pedagogical plan established for the child’s education (Albrecht, 1992; Altschuler, 2007).
The original legislation provided for the establishment of an Individual Education Program (IEP). IDEA maintains the IEP as the central process in the education of a child with a disability. These plans should delineate the current level of education of the child, the goals and objectives of the child’s educational process, specific services needed and when they need to be provided, and the method by which the plan’s implementation will be evaluated . . .
Part C . . . of IDEA mandates that participating states provide early intervention services to children with developmental disabilities from birth to their third birthday. In addition, Part C covers children and youths to age twenty-one . . .
It is important . . . to understand some of the unique qualities of IDEA as a disability law. First, it covers . . . youths [with disabilities] through age twenty-one or until high school graduation, whichever comes first. Second, it mandates public support of substantial services placing financial and service responsibility on states and schools. Third, it mandates substantial involvement of both . . . individuals [with disabilities] and their families. Fourth, IDEA is entitling legislation: not only are people eligible for services, but schools and states are responsible for providing services. (pp. 144–145)
Children with learning, intellectual, and other developmental disabilities are thus guaranteed the right to an education. States and communities
cannot ignore or reject children with learning and other disabilities. Excuses such as high costs or lack of existing facilities are no longer acceptable. This illustrates how legislation forces state, community, and organizational macro systems to respond to a social need and seek social justice.
LO 13 Discuss Attention Deficit DisorderOne other condition merits attention because of its significance and prevalence for children of school age. It has been labeled, studied, and given much, public attention. Attention deficit hyperactivity disor-der (ADHD), a psychiatric diagnosis, is a syndrome of learning and behavioral problems beginning be-fore age 12 that is characterized by a persistent pat-tern of inattention, excessive physical movement, and impulsivity that appears in at least two settings (including home, school, work, or social contexts) (APA, 2013a). It is estimated that about 5 percent of all children and 2.5 percent of adults in most cultures have ADHD (APA, 2013a). Note that “ADHD often occurs simultaneously with other behavioral and/or learning problems such as learning disabilities or emotional or behavioral disorders” (Hallahan et al., 2012, p. 182). ADHD is more likely to affect boys more than girls by an estimated 3:1 ratio (Barkley, 2006; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013).
The definition of ADHD has several dimensions. First, a child manifests a pattern of ADHD symp-toms before the age of 7, although the pattern may not be identified until much later. A second dimen-sion of ADHD is that it occurs in multiple settings, not just in one context or with one person. It in-volves uncontrollable behavior that is not necessarily related to a particular context. Finally, three primary clusters of behavior characterize ADHD. The first is inattention. Behavioral symptoms include messy work, carelessly handled tasks, frequent preoccu-pation, easy distractibility, aversion to tasks that require attention and greater mental exertion, seri-ous problems in organizing tasks and activities, and difficulties attending to ongoing conversations. The second cluster of behaviors concerns hyperactivity, excessive physical activity that is difficult to control, resulting from an “impaired ability to sit or concen-trate for long periods of time” (Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 203). That is difficult to control (hyperactivity).
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 155
This involves almost constant action, squirming or being unable to sit down at all, demonstrating great difficulty in attending to quiet activities, and talking nonstop. The third batch of behaviors falls under the umbrella of impulsivity. This is characterized by ex-treme impatience, having great difficulty in waiting for one’s turn, and making frequent interruptions and intrusions.
Treatment for ADHDADHD has been treated for decades by using drugs that “stimulate the parts of the brain that normally inhibit hyperactive and impulsive behavior. Thus, stimulants [e.g., Ritalin] actually have a calming in-fluence for many youngsters with ADHD, allowing them to focus their attention” (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013, p. 227). However, some questions have been raised about the effectiveness of long-term drug use (Hardman et al., 2014; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). Other treatment methods such as family interven-tion and provision of special treatment to children along with drug therapy are also frequently used.
Additional techniques suggested to help children who have ADHD involve providing a structured classroom environment with minimal distracting stimuli. For example, the student with ADHD might be given “a desk or work area in a quiet, relatively distraction-free area of the classroom. Other physical accommodations can include pointers or bookmarks to help a student track words visually during reading exercises, timers to remind students how much time is left before an assignment must be finished, [and] visual cues as prompts to change behavior (e.g., turning the classroom lights off to indicate that the noise level is too high)” (Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 214). Other suggestions for the classroom include provid-ing “directions that are clear, concise, and thorough (even better when they are presented both visu-ally and orally)” and immediate, periodic praise for completing tasks successfully (Smith & Tyler, 2010, p. 214).
Behavior modification also offers techniques that are helpful for children with ADHD (Friend, 2011). Chapter 4 discusses behavior modification techniques with respect to effective parenting. For ADHD children, behavior modification focuses on specifying and reinforcing good behavior and de-creasing poor behavior by monitoring and structur-ing each behavior’s consequences.
A major ongoing study initiated in the 1990s and sponsored by the National Institute of Mental Health is being conducted to evaluate the effective-ness of both drug and psychosocial treatment (i.e., psychologically and behaviorally oriented interven-tion with child and family) (Richters et al., 1995). Kail and Cavanaugh (2013) summarize findings. Initial results indicate that medication can often be effective in treating hyperactivity as such. However, related issues including specific academic problems, social skill development, and working in conjunction with parents are addressed slightly better when med-ication is administered along with the provision of psychosocial treatment. It should also be noted that medication is only effective when it is closely moni-tored with consistent visits to health-care providers and there is ongoing communication with school staff about the drug’s effects and the child’s behavior.
Friend (2011) expresses a number of factors to consider before using ADHD drug treatment, in-cluding the following:
● “The child’s age ● Prior attempts at other interventions and their
impact on the behaviors of concern ● P a r e n t a n d c h i l d at t i t u d e s t ow a r d u s i n g
medication . . . ● Severity of symptoms ● Availability of adults in the household to supervise
use of medications, ensuring that medications are taken regularly and as prescribed.” (p. 182)
Social Work RolesSocial work roles with respect to clients with both ADHD and learning disabilities are similar to those used with clients who have intellectual disabilities. Social workers function as brokers to help link cli-ents with resources. In the school setting, “besides participating in the multidisciplinary team confer-ences and consultation, social workers coordinate IEP [Individualized Education Program and IFSP [Individualized Family Service Plan] conferences, serve as trained mediators . . . lead parent education and informational groups, function as case manag-ers, and facilitate the development of relationships that link the services of the school with those found in the community” (Atkins-Burnett, 2010, p. 187). Practitioners also function as advocates to effect positive change in macro systems that are not re-sponsive to clients’ needs.
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15 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to do the following:
LO 1 Summarize psychological theories about personality development (including psycho-dynamic, neo-Freudian psychoanalytic, be-havioral, phenomenological, and feminist theories).Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the predominant psy-chodynamic theory, emphasizes concepts including the id, superego, ego, libido, fixation, defense mech-anisms, Oedipus complex, and Electra complex. His proposed stages of psychosexual development are oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital. Freud’s phases of psychosexual and personality develop-ment include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. Criticisms of psychoanalytic theory include a lack of supportive research, poor clarity of ideas, and failure to adequately address the status of women.
The neo-Freudian psychoanalytic theorists in-clude Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Alfred Adler, and Harry Stack Sullivan. Theoretical emphases include analytic psychology for Jung, a social context for Fromm, individual psychology for Adler, and indi-vidual personality development based on interper-sonal relationships for Sullivan.
Behavioral theories, one of the most useful con-ceptual frameworks for understanding human be-havior, are discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 4. They focus on specific observable behaviors instead of on internal motivations, needs, and perceptions.
The self theory of Carl Rogers is a phenomenologi-cal approach that emphasizes the ideas of self-concept, self-actualization, ideal self, incongruence between self and experience, the need for positive regard, and con-ditions of worth, among others.
Feminist theories are based on the concept of feminism and reflect a range of theories. Major un-derlying principles include the elimination of false dichotomies, rethinking knowledge, differences in male and female experiences throughout the life span, egalitarianism, empowerment, valuing process equally with product, the personal as political, unity and diversity, and the importance of advocating for positive change on women’s behalf. Diverse feminist
theories include liberal feminism, cultural feminism, Marxist or socialist feminism, radical feminism, and postmodern feminism. People progress through several phases in the process of feminist identity development.
LO 2 Use critical thinking to evaluate theory.Determining theories’ relevance to social work in-volves evaluating each theory’s application to client situations, the research supporting the theory, the ex-tent to which the theory coincides with social work values and ethics, and the existence and validity of other comparable theories.
LO 3 Relate human diversity to psychological theories.It is important to be sensitive to diversity when ex-amining psychological theories. Important con-cepts are worldview, spirituality, and the strengths perspective.
LO 4 Examine Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.Piaget’s theory of cognitive development includes four stages: the sensorimotor period, the preop-erational thought period, the period of concrete operations, and the period of formal operations. Important concepts include conservation, schema, adaptation, assimilation, accommodation, ob-ject per manence, representation, egocentrism, centration, irreversibility, classification, and se-riation. Criticisms of Piaget’s theory include the fact that it was based on observations of his own children, its focus on the “average child,” and its limited consideration of other dimensions of human development.
LO 5 Review the information-processing conception of cognitive development.The information-processing approach to cognitive development relates human thought to how comput-ers function with both hardware and software. The physical cognitive structure in the brain is compared to computer hardware. Established processes regard-ing how thought takes place in the brain is related to software programs. As children mature, they increase their ability to process information and solve prob-lems. Important concepts include attention, memory (including sensory, short-term, and long-term), and information-processing strategies.
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Psychological Development in Infancy and Childhood 157
LO 6 Apply Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development.Vygotsky’s theory of sociocultural cognitive devel-opment emphasizes how children develop differently depending on the social and cultural circumstances and expectations evident in their environment. Chil-dren learn as they interact with and observe others, framing their development with the use of language. North American culture emphasizes the develop-ment of independence, whereas many other cultures encourage mutual dependence. Important concepts include the zone of proximal development, scaf-folding, and private speech. Positive aspects of the theory include the appreciation of diversity and the potential for individuals to promote their own cog-nitive development. Criticisms include its neglect of aspects of learning other than verbal and its inatten-tiveness to the biological side of development.
LO 7 Explain emotional development (including the development of temperament and attachment).People begin displaying their emotions and tem-perament in infancy. Early behaviors include crying, smiling, and laughing. A major variable related to overall adjustment may be the “goodness” or “poor-ness” of fit between the individual and the impinging environment. Cultural values affect the development of temperament.
Infants tend to pass through various stages as they form social and emotional attachments with adults. Secure attachment is the most common pat-tern of attachment. Other patterns include anxious-avoidant attachment, anxious-resistant attachment, and disorganized attachment. Being in quality day care does not interfere with the attachment process between child and parents. Cross-cultural differences in attachment exist.
LO 8 Examine self-concept, self-esteem, and empowerment.One’s self-concept is the personal impression of one’s own unique attributes and traits, both positive and negative. Self-esteem is a person’s judgment of his or her own value. It is important to strengthen children’s self-concepts and enhance their self-esteem, especially for those children with exceptionally low self-esteem.
LO 9 Discuss intelligence and intelligence testing.Intelligence is the ability to understand, learn, and deal with new, unknown situations. Cattell identifies
two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence empha-sizes componential, experiential, and contextual elements.
LO 10 Explain cultural biases and IQ tests.Intelligence tests include the Stanford-Binet IQ test and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale tests. Giftedness involves analytic, synthetic, and practical abilities. It is critical to be vigilant concerning the potential for cultural biases and other potential problems in IQ tests.
LO 11 Analyze intellectual disabilities and the importance of empowerment.Intellectual disability is a condition characterized by intellectual functioning that is significantly be-low average and accompanying deficits in adaptive functioning, both of which occur before reaching adulthood. Support systems are important for peo-ple with intellectual disabilities. Problem areas for people with intellectual disabilities include attention, memory, language development, self-regulation, motivation, and social development. Macro-system responses to intellectual disabilities include deinsti-tutionalization, community-based services, and the Americans with Disabilities Act.
LO 12 Examine learning disabilities.Learning disabilities involve a heterogeneous group of neurological disorders resulting in perceptual pro-cessing problems in learning to read, communicate verbally, understand math, perceive social interac-tions, use motor skills, or maintain memory. They may involve one or more of these areas and are char-acterized by underachievement. Although learning disabilities are not the result of other disorders, peo-ple with learning disabilities may have other disor-ders. Characteristics of learning disabilities include cognitive, academic, or social/emotional aspects.
Specific causes of learning disabilities are as yet unknown, although they are thought to involve neu-rological dysfunction. Learning disabilities may psy-chologically affect children in several ways, including learned helplessness, low self-esteem, and lack of so-cial competence. Treatment approaches may involve the school or family and social settings. The Indi-viduals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) has expanded educational opportunities for children with learning and other disabilities.
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158 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Other conditions that can affect children include autistic spectrum disorders, cerebral palsy, hearing problems, vision impairment, and epilepsy. People may have concurrent disabilities.
LO 13 Discuss attention deficit disorder.Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a syndrome of learning and behavioral problems beginning in childhood that is characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention, excessive physical movement, and impulsivity occurring before age 12 that appears in at least two settings. Treatment may involve medical drugs and/or family intervention and special treatment.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and behaviors are discussed in this chapter.
EP 6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies.
EP 7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies.
EP 8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (All of this chapter.)Material on concepts and theories about human be-havior and the social environment affecting psycho-logical development in infancy and childhood are presented throughout this chapter.
EP 1. Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 109, 138, 143,146).Ethical questions are posed.
EP 2a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels.
EP 2c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies (pp. 104–109, 112–114, 124, 130, 133, 140–145, 147–154).Diversity content is presented on: feminism, vulnerable groups, spirituality, sociocultural learning, cross-cultural diversity, cross-cultural differences, cultural biases and IQ tests, intellectual disabilities, and disabilities.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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159
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“My dad could punch out your dad, I bet!” Jimmy yelled at Harry, the neighborhood bully. Harry had just bopped Jimmy in the nose. Jimmy, who was small for his age, felt hurt. So he resorted to name-calling as he edged away from his aggressor. Since his own house was a full two blocks away, Jimmy had to do some fast thinking about how to get there without everybody thinking he was chicken. The worst thing was that Harry was also a pretty fast runner.
To Jimmy’s surprise and delight, Harry was apparently losing interest in this particu-lar quarry. Somebody called out from the next block and was trying to interest Harry, a good fullback, in a game of football.
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16 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Scowling, Harry shouted back to Jimmy, “Oh, get out of here, you nose wad. Your dad sucks eggs!” He then darted down the block and into the sunset.
That last remark did not make much sense, although Harry’s intent was to be as nasty as possible (intellect was not his strong suit). The important thing, however, was that Harry was running in the other direction. Any of the other guys who happened to witness this incident might just think that it was Harry who was running scared. Nonetheless, Jimmy thought it best not to reply, just in case Harry decided to change his mind.
“Whew!” thought Jimmy. “That was a close one.” He was usually pretty good at staying far out of Harry’s way. This meeting was purely an accident. He was on his way home from a friend’s house after working on a class project. That was another story. Their project involved growing bean plants under different lighting conditions. The bean plants that were supposed to be growing good beans weren’t. Jimmy secretly suspected that his partner was eating the beans.
Anyway, Jimmy had better things to do now. He had to finish his homework. His parents had promised to buy him an Xbox if he maintained at least a B1 average for the whole year. Harry would probably flunk this year anyhow. He was big, but he was also pretty stupid.
Jimmy hightailed it down the street. He imagined hearing the tones of Ear Discharge, his favorite hip-hop group. The horrible Harry affair was soon forgotten.
A PerspectiveThe attainment of primary social developmental milestones and the significant life events that usually accompany them have tremendous impacts on the developing indi-vidual and that individual’s transactions with the environment. Family and peer group mezzo systems are dynamically involved in children’s growth, development, and behav-ior. Social interaction in childhood provides the foundation for building an adult social personality. Children and their families do not function in a vacuum. Macro systems within the environment, including communities, government units, and agencies, can pro-vide necessary resources to help families address issues and solve problems typically ex-perienced by children. Impinging macro systems within the social environment can either help or hinder family members in fulfilling their potential.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Explain the concept of socializationLO 2 Analyze the family environment (including variations in family structures, positive family functioning, macro systems and the pursuit of social and economic justice, and family system dynamics)LO 3 Apply systems theory concepts to familiesLO 4 Assess the family life cycleLO 5 Explain diverse perspectives on the family life cycleLO 6 Describe learning theory
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 161
LO 7 Apply learning theory concepts to practice (including positive reinforcement, punishment, issues related to the application of learning theory, and time-out from reinforcement)LO 8 Examine common life events that affect children (including treatment of children in families, sibling subsystems, and gender-role socialization)LO 9 Recognize ethnic and cultural differences in familiesLO 10 Assess relevant aspects of the social environment (including the social aspects of play with peers, bullying, the influence of television and the media, and the school environment)LO 11 Examine child maltreatment (including incidence, physical child abuse, child neglect, psychological maltreatment, Child Protective Services, treatment approaches for child maltreat-ment and sexual abuse, and trauma-informed care)
LO 1 Explain the Concept of SocializationSocialization is the process whereby children acquire knowledge about the language, values, etiquette, rules, behaviors, social expectations, and all the subtle, complex bits of information necessary to get along and thrive in a particular society.
Although socialization continues throughout life, most of it occurs in childhood. Children need to learn how to interact with other people. They must learn which behaviors are considered acceptable and which are not. For example, children should learn that they must abide by the directives of their par-ents, at least most of the time. They must learn how to communicate to others what they require in terms of food and comfort. On the other hand, they must also learn what behaviors are not considered appro-priate. They need to learn that breaking windows and spitting in the eyes of other people when they don’t get their way will not be tolerated.
Because children start with knowing nothing about their society, the most awesome socialization occurs during childhood. This is when the funda-mental building blocks of their consequent attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors are established.
LO 2 Analyze the Family EnvironmentBecause children’s lives are centered initially within their families, the family environment becomes the pri-mary agent of socialization. The family environment
involves the circumstances and social climate within families. Because each family is made up of different individuals in a different setting, each family environ-ment is unique. The environments can differ in many ways. For example, one obvious difference is socioeco-nomic level. Some families live in luxurious 24-room estates, own a Mercedes and an SUV in addition to the family minivan, and can afford to have shrimp cocktail for an appetizer whenever they choose. Other families subsist in two-room shacks, struggle with payments on their used 1998 Chevy, and have to eat macaroni made with processed cheese four times a week.
This section addresses several aspects of the fam-ily environment. They include variations in fam-ily structures, positive family functioning, impacts of social forces and policies on family systems, and the application of systems theory principles to families.
Membership in Family Groups: Variations in Family StructureFamilies in the United States today are no longer characterized by two first-time married parents who live blissfully together with their 2.5 children. The traditional nuclear family included heterosexual par-ents married one time, with one or more children. Today’s families are more likely to reflect a varied medley of structures and configurations.
The term family is now identified as “two or more individuals living together who are related by birth, marriage, partnership agreement, or adoption.” The term family constellation is defined as “the many
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162 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
variables that describe a family group, including the presence or absence of mother and father, the num-ber, spacing and sex of siblings; the presence or ab-sence of extended family member in the household” (Newman & Newman, 2015, p. G-9).
A family is a primary group defined as people who have close personal relationships, interact often with each other, have shared expectations regarding how members in the group should behave, and are exposed to the same ongoing forces and experiences (Barker, 2014). Thus, family members as members of a primary group have significant influence on each other. They have mutual commitment and re-sponsibility for other family members. Additionally, they interact frequently with each other, often living together.
Families, then, may consist of intact two-parent families with or without children, single-parent families, grandparent-led families, blended families, stepfamilies, LGBTQ families, friends or adult sib-lings choosing to live together to cut down costs and/or to help each other with child-rearing responsibili-ties, or any other configuration that fits our defini-tion. Some of these terms are defined as follows.
A single-parent family is a family household in which one parent resides with the children but without the other parent. (Note that a household
“comprises all persons who occupy a ‘housing unit’” [U.S. Census Bureau, 2015].)
In 2015, 27 percent of all household were headed by single parents: 23 percent of all households were headed by single mothers and 4 percent of all house-holds were headed by single fathers (Child Trends, 2015). As is indicated, the majority of households (approximately 85%) headed by a single parent were headed by single mothers. Approximately 7 percent of all children lived with grandparents, with 4.4 per-cent having at least one parent living in their grand-parents’ home as well (Child Trends, 2015).
Stepfamilies are families in which one or both parents reside with children from prior marriages or unions. Members may include stepmothers, stepfa-thers, and any children either may have from prior marriages. Stepfamilies may also include children born to the currently married couple. Stepfamilies have become extremely common because about half of all marriages end in divorce. Stepfamilies may also become very complex when one or both spouses have been married more than once and/or have chil-dren from a variety of relationships.
A blended family is any nontraditional configu-ration of people who live together, are committed to each other, and perform functions traditionally assumed by families. Such relationships may not
An extended family of Indian descent living in the USA.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 16 3
involve biological or legal linkages. The important thing is that such groups function as families.
Several other changes from traditional patterns characterize today’s family life (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2013):
● Marrying later or not at all. Both men and women are waiting much longer to marry. In 1960, the median age for men to marry was 23 and women 20; now men marry at the median age of 28 and women at 26 (Mooney et al., 2013). At present, 13.8 percent of women and 20.4 percent of men in the 40 to 44 age group have never been married; this is the highest percentage ever in the United States (Mooney et al., 2013).
● Living together without being married. Heterosexual and same-gender cohabitation without marriage has escalated significantly in recent years (Mooney et al., 2013). Cohabitation is the situation where two adults share the same residence and have a sex-ual relationship, without the legality of marriage.
One recent study revealed the following results:
—In more recent years, women were increasingly likely to cohabit with a partner as a first union rather than to marry directly: 48 percent of women interviewed in 2006–2010 cohabited as a first union, compared with 43 percent in 2002 and 34 percent in 1995.
—The rise in cohabitation as a first union over this time period led to a lower percentage of women aged 15–44 whose first union was a marriage: 23 percent in 2006–2010 compared with 30 percent in 2002 and 39 percent in 1995.
—An increase in cohabitation as a first union for all Hispanic origin and race groups occurred be-tween 1995 and 2006–2010, except among Asian women. The percentage of women who cohab-ited as a first union increased 57 percent for Hispanic women, 43 percent for white women and 39 percent for black women over this time period. (Copen, Daniels, & Mosher, 2013, p. 3)
● Being together but living separately. This new phe-nomenon involves couples who are married or “together” emotionally and sexually, but live in different cities or states. Many of these couples live apart because of being employed in different locations; however, some choose to live apart to maintain a sort of freedom and avoid daily con-flicts resulting from too much intimacy (Mooney et al., 2013). This phenomenon has been observed
not only in the United States, but also in various Western European nations (Levin, 2004).
● Increased births to single women. Of all births, the percentage to unmarried women is 40.2 (CDC, 2016); this reflects a rise from 18 percent in 1980, to 33 percent in 1994, to between 32 and 34 percent in 2002 (ChildStats.gov, 2013). In almost 75 percent of all births to women under age 25, the women were unmarried (ChildStats.gov, 2013).
● Higher divorce rates and more stepfamilies. Di-vorce will terminate between 40 and 50 percent of all marriages (Cherlin, 2010). A majority of di-vorced people will remarry and form stepfamilies (Mooney et al., 2013). Over 40 percent of adults living in the United States have a minimum of one person in their family that is a step-relative (Parker, 2011).
● More mothers being employed. About 72 percent of single women with children under age 18 and almost 70 percent of married women with such children are employed outside the home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). These figures have in-creased from 52 percent and more than 54 per-cent, respectively, since 1980 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Note that women with small children are also likely to work. Almost 68 percent of single women and 61.6 percent of married women who have children under age 6 work outside the home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Positive Family FunctioningIn view of the vast range of family configurations, it is extremely difficult to define a “healthy” family. However, at least two concepts are important when assessing the effectiveness of a family. These include how well family functions are undertaken and how well family members communicate with each other.
Family functions include a wide range of caregiv-ing functions, including nurturing and socializing children, providing material and emotional support, and assuming general responsibility for the well-being of all members. Children must be nurtured and taught. All family members need adequate resources to thrive. Additionally, family members should be able to call on each other for help when necessary.
Good communication is the second character-istic of “healthy” families. Communication and autonomy are closely related concepts. Good com-munication involves clear expression of personal ideas and feelings even when they differ from those
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16 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of other family members. On the other hand, good communication also involves being sensitive to the needs and feelings of other family members. Good communication promotes compromise so that the most important needs of all involved are met. In families that foster autonomy, boundaries for roles and relationships are clearly established. All family members are held responsible for their own behavior. Under these conditions, family members much less frequently feel the need to tell others what to do or “push each other around.” (Family communication is discussed more thoroughly in Chapters 8 and 12.)
Negotiation is also clearly related to good com-munication and good relationships. When faced with decisions or crises, healthy families involve all family members, so as to come to solutions for the mutual good. Conflicts are settled through rational discus-sion and compromise instead of open hostility and conflict. If one family member feels strongly about an issue, healthy families work to accommodate his or her views in a satisfactory way. Both unhealthy and healthy families suffer conflict and disagree-ments, but a healthy family deals with conflict much more rationally and effectively.
Families can be compared and evaluated on many other dimensions and variables. The specific vari-ables are not as important as the concept that chil-dren are socialized according to the makeup of their individual family environments. The family teaches children what types of transactions are considered appropriate. They learn how to form relationships, handle power, maintain personal boundaries, com-municate with others, and feel that they are an im-portant subset of the whole family system.
Macro Systems, Families, and the Pursuit of Social and Economic JusticeWe have established that families provide an immedi-ate, intimate social environment for children as they develop. However, families do not exist in a vacuum. They are in constant interaction with numerous other systems permeating the macro social environ-ment. Families can provide care and nurturance only to the extent that other macro systems in the envi-ronment, including communities and organizations, provide support and empower them.
For example, unemployment may soar because of an economic slump. Political decisions such as in-creasing business taxes may have sparked the slump. Ideologically, the general public may feel that in
“a free country” of rugged individualists, it is each person’s responsibility to find and succeed in work. The public may not support political decisions to subsidize workers by providing long-term unem-ployment benefits or developing programs for job retraining. At the same time, legislators concerned about the increasing unemployment rate and their reelection may hesitate to impose increasing restric-tions on business and industry such as more strin-gent (and costlier) pollution control regulations. Thus, the physical environment suffers.
This example, of course, is overly simplistic. Vol-umes have been written on each aspect of the po-litical, economic, environmental, and ideological dimensions of the social environment. However, the point is that it is impossible to comprehend a fami-ly’s situation without assessing that family within the context of the macro social environment. For exam-ple, economic downturns and unemployment may leave a parent jobless and poverty-stricken. That parent will then be less able to provide the food, shel-ter, health care, and other necessities for a family en-vironment in which children can flourish.
Likewise, the resources available to agencies and communities for dispersal to clients depend on legis-lative and organizational policies. For instance, U.S. society is structured such that all citizens have the right to receive a high school education. This idea is based in ideology that, in turn, is reflected by legis-lative and administrative policy that regulates how that education is provided.
Public day care or child care, on the other hand, is not provided to working parents on a universal basis. Day care involves an agency or a program that pro-vides supervision and care for children while parents or guardians are at work or otherwise unavailable. There are many historical ideological reasons for this lack. For one, traditional thought is that a woman’s place is in the home and that she should be the pri-mary caretaker of the children (Spakes, 1992). How-ever, we have established that a strong majority of women, many with children under age 6, work out-side the home (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Massive evidence suggests that although most women in heterosexual relationships work, they still continue to carry the overwhelming responsibility for child care and other household tasks (Kesselman, McNair, & Schniedewind, 2008; Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2013; Lorber, 2010; Shaw & Lee, 2012). We have noted that although most people marry, a significant number of marriages end in divorce. More than 85 percent
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 165
of all single-parent families are headed by women (Child Trends, 2015). (Many of these issues will be discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 9.)
In summary, a number of facts point to the need for adequate day care to serve the nation’s children. First, most women work outside the home because of economic necessity. Second, the majority have the ad-ditional burden of being primary homemakers. Third, many women have no mate to help with child care.
Day care facilities are clearly inadequate to meet the nation’s needs (Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2013; Lein, 2008). Parents often struggle to find adequate, af-fordable, and accessible day care for their children. Many day care centers refuse to accept small infants because of the difficulty of caring for them. Further-more, numerous children in the United States are provided day care in private homes, unregulated by public standards.
Why doesn’t the government require that facilities be developed to meet the day care need? There is no clear answer. Cost may be one possibility. Low prior-ity may be another.
Ethical Questions 4.1
EP 1
As a student social worker, what do you think about the nation’s day care situation? How critical is it, especially for women? To what extent might you be willing to seek out answers for how to solve this problem and others like it?
The Dynamics of Family SystemsIn order to understand family functioning, it’s help-ful to view the family within a systems perspective. Systems theory applies to a multitude of situations, ranging from the internal mechanisms of a com-puter to the bureaucratic functioning of a large public welfare department to the interpersonal re-lationships within a family. Regardless of the situa-tion, understanding systems theory concepts helps you to understand dynamic relationships among people. Systems theory helps to conceptualize how a family works. Basic systems theory concepts were introduced in Chapter 1. The next section reviews those concepts and shows how they can be applied to family systems.
Systems theory helps us understand how a family system is intertwined with many other systems. Each member of a family is affected by what happens to any of the other members. Each member and the family as a whole are also affected by the many other systems in the family’s environment. For instance, if Johnny flunks algebra, the family works with the school system to help him make improvements. The entire family might have to cancel their summer va-cation because Johnny has to attend summer school. The school system directly affects the family system.
A second example concerns Shirl, Johnny’s mother and the family’s primary breadwinner. She works as an engineering supervisor for Bob Bear, a corporation based in Racine, Wisconsin, that makes tractors. New World International, an immense con-glomerate corporation, owns Bob Bear. What if New World International decides to close down the Bob Bear plant in Racine because of inadequate profits and to move the large plant to Bonetraill, North Dakota? Bonetraill is a far cry from small, but urban, Racine. One possibility for the family is to move two states away to a totally different environment be-cause Shirl has been offered a comparable position in Bonetraill. Lennie, Johnny’s father, is a journalist for the local paper. In the event of a move, he would have to find a new job. The whole family would have to leave their neighborhood and friends. Another al-ternative is for Shirl to seek a new job in the Racine area. However, the economy there is depressed, and she would have difficulty finding a position with a salary anywhere near the one she is currently earn-ing. Thus, the family system is seriously affected by the larger Bob Bear system, and the Bob Bear system by the even larger New World International system.
Another important reason can be given for un-derstanding systems theory as it relates to families. Intervention in families with problems is a major concern of social work. Family therapy is interven-tion by a social worker or other family therapist with members of a family to improve communication and interaction among members and to pursue other changes and goals they wish to pursue. Family ther-apy is based on the idea that the family is a system. In finding solutions to problems within a family, the target of intervention is the family system.
Whether a particular problem is initially defined as an individual member’s or as the entire family’s, a family therapist views this problem as one involving the entire family system. The entire family should be the focus of treatment. In family therapy, the specific
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16 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
relationships between various family members in the family system need to be closely observed. Family in-teraction is discussed more thoroughly in Chapter 12.
LO 3 Apply Systems Theory Concepts to FamiliesA number of the basic systems theory concepts in-troduced in Chapter 1 will be briefly redefined here and then applied to examples of family situations.
SystemsA system is a set of elements that form an orderly, interrelated, and functional whole. Several aspects of this definition are important. The idea that a sys-tem is a “set of elements” means that a system can be composed of any type of things as long as these things have some relationship to each other. Things may be people, or they may be mathematical sym-bols. Regardless, the set of elements must be orderly. In other words, the elements must be arranged in some order or pattern that is not simply random. The set of elements must also be interrelated. They must have some kind of mutual relationship or con-nection with each other. Additionally, the set of el-ements must be functional. Together they must be able to perform some regular task, activity, or func-tion and fulfill some purpose. Finally, the set of ele-ments must form a whole.
Families are systems. Any particular family is composed of a number of individuals, the elements making up the system. Each individual has a unique relationship with the other individuals in the family. Spouses normally have a special physical and emo-tional relationship with each other. In a family with seven children, the two oldest sisters may have a spe-cial relationship with each other that is unlike their relationship with any of the other siblings. Regard-less of what the relationships are, together the family members function as a family system. These relation-ships, however, are not always positive and beneficial. Sometimes, a relationship is negative or even hostile. For example, a 3-year-old daughter may be fiercely jealous of and resentful toward her newborn brother.
HomeostasisHomeostasis refers to the tendency of a system to maintain a relatively stable, constant state of equi-librium or balance. A homeostatic family system
functions effectively. The family system is maintain-ing itself and may even be thriving. However, a ho-meostatic family system is not necessarily a perfect family. Mother may still become terribly annoyed at father for never wanting to go out dancing. Ten-year-old Bobby may still be maintaining a D average in English. Nonetheless, the family is able to con-tinue its daily existence, and the family system itself is not threatened.
Homeostasis is exceptionally important in deter-mining whether outside therapeutic intervention is necessary. Absolute perfection is usually unrealis-tic. However, if the family’s existence is threatened, the system may be in danger of breaking apart. In these instances, the family system no longer has homeostasis.
For instance, an 89-year-old maternal great-grandmother, Tula, no longer can care for herself. She has been living alone since the death of her hus-band 20 years earlier. Her eyesight is failing, and her rheumatoid arthritis puts her in constant pain. She remains fairly alert, however, with only some minor forgetfulness. Tula had raised her only grandchild, Jasmine, now age 35, since Jasmine was 3 when her own mother was killed in a car accident. Jasmine’s father left before Jasmine was born, never to be heard from again. Tula and Jasmine have always been very close.
Jasmine refuses to place Tula in a nursing home. She feels responsible for Tula because Jasmine is the only grandchild, and she would like to “pay back” all the care she received when she was young.
Jasmine’s husband, Hank, however, hates the idea of having Tula move in. Tula, he feels, has al-ways tried to intervene in his marriage. He feels that she takes sides with his wife and constantly tells him what to do. He also feels she talks incessantly and is so hard of hearing that she listens to Jeopardy reruns loud enough to deafen him, even when he’s working down in the basement. Hank also feels that Tula’s presence in the home would seriously disrupt his own children’s lives. His son Bill is 11 and Bob is 8.
Hank relents, and Tula moves in. Jasmine and Hank start quarreling more and more over Tula. Soon they seem to be quarreling over everything. Jasmine has to quit her job because Tula requires more care and attention than Jasmine expected. The family had just purchased a new home with high mortgage payments. Without Jasmine’s salary,
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 167
money becomes scarce for food, clothing, and other necessities. Jasmine and Hank fight over the finan-cial situation; each blames the other for buying the expensive new home to begin with. Bill’s and Bob’s grades in school start dropping, and they begin to display some behavior problems. Hank simply threatens to leave if things don’t improve. The family system’s homeostasis is threatened.
At this point, intervention might take the form of family counseling to help the family clearly iden-tify their problems, voice their opinions, and come to some mutually agreed-upon resolutions. Couple’s counseling might be involved to improve the commu-nication between Jasmine and Hank. Social services might be needed to help Tula and the family decide what her best care alternative might be, including consideration of placement in a nursing home. In order for the family to survive, homeostasis must be restored and maintained.
SubsystemsA s u b s y s t e m i s a s e c o n d a r y o r s u b o rd i n at e system—a system within a system. The most ob-vious examples are the parental and sibling sub-systems. Other subtler subsystems may also exist depending on the boundaries established within the family system. A mother might have a daugh-ter to whom she feels especially close. These two might form a subsystem within a family system, apart from other family members. Sometimes sub-systems exist because of more negative circum-stances within family systems. A subsystem might exist within a family with an alcoholic father. Here the mother and children might form a subsystem in coalition against the father.
BoundariesBoundaries are repeatedly occurring patterns of be-havior that characterize the relationships within a system and give that system a particular identity. In a family system, boundaries determine who are members of that particular family system and who are not. Parents and children are within the bound-aries of the family system. Close friends of the fam-ily are not.
Boundaries may also delineate subsystems within a system. For instance, boundaries separate the spouse subsystem within a family from the sibling
subsystem. Each subsystem has its own specified membership. Either a family member is within the boundaries of that subsystem or he is not.
InputInput can be defined as the energy, information, or communication flow received from other systems. Families are not isolated, self-sufficient units. Each family system is constantly interacting with its envi-ronment and with other systems. For example, one type of input into a family system is the money re-ceived for the parents’ work outside the home. An-other type of input involves the communication and supportive social interaction family members receive from friends, neighbors, and relatives. Schools also provide input in the form of education for children and progress reports concerning that education.
Family systems involve powerful interpersonal connections and dynamics. A subsystem may be subtle—a mother might feel especially close to one child.
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16 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
OutputOutput is the energy, information, or communica-tion emitted from a system to the environment or to other systems. Work, whether it be in a job situation, a school setting, or in the home, can be considered output. Financial output is another form. This is necessary for the purchase of food, clothing, shelter, and the other necessities of life.
An important thing to consider about output is its relationship to input. If a family system’s output exceeds its input, family homeostasis may be threat-ened. In other words, if more energy is leaving a family system than is coming in, tensions may result and functioning may be impaired. For example, in a multiproblem family troubled by poverty, illness, lack of education, isolation, loneliness, and delin-quency, tremendous amounts of effort and energy may be expended simply to stay alive. At the same time, little help and support may be coming in. The result would be severely restricted family functioning and lack of homeostasis.
FeedbackFeedback is a system’s receipt of information from an outside source about its own performance or be-havior. Feedback can be given to an entire family system, a subsystem (such as a marital pair), or an individual within the family system.
Feedback can be information obtained from out-side the system. For example, a family therapist can provide a family with information about how it is functioning. Feedback can also be given by one in-dividual or subsystem within the family system to another. For example, the sibling subsystem might communicate to the alcoholic mother that they are suffering from the consequences of her alcoholic be-havior. Finally, a system, subsystem, or individual within a system can give feedback to those outside the family system. For instance, a family might con-tact their landlord and notify him that their kitchen sink is backing up. They might also add that he won’t see another rent check until it’s fixed.
Feedback can be either positive or negative. Posi-tive feedback involves information about what a system is doing right in order to maintain itself and thrive. Positive feedback can provide specific in-formation so that members in a family system are aware of the positive aspects of their functioning. For example, a mother works outside her home as
a computer programmer. During her job perfor-mance evaluation, her supervisor may tell her that she has maintained the highest accuracy record in the department. This indicates to her that her con-scientiousness in this respect is valued and should be continued.
Negative feedback can also be valuable. Nega-tive feedback involves providing information about problems within the system. As a result of negative feedback, the system can choose to correct any devi-ations or mistakes and return to a more homeostatic state. For example, the mother mentioned earlier who works as a computer programmer can receive negative feedback during the same job evaluation. Her supervisor indicates that she tends to fall behind on her weekly written reports. Although she feels the reports are extraordinarily dull and tedious to com-plete, her supervisor’s feedback gives her the infor-mation she needs to perform her job better.
Perhaps the most relevant example for social workers concerning feedback is its application in a family treatment setting. When a family comes in for help about a particular problem, feedback can raise their awareness about their functioning. It can help them correct areas where they are making mistakes. It can also encourage them to continue positive in-teractions. For example, if every time a husband and wife discuss housework responsibilities, they yell at each other about what the other does not do, a social worker can give them feedback that their yelling is accomplishing nothing. Constructive sug-gestions might then be given about how the couple could better resolve their differences over who takes out the garbage, who makes waffles for breakfast, and who separates the colors from the whites in the laundry.
Positive feedback might also be given. The hus-band and wife may not be aware that when asked a question about their feelings for each other or about how they like to raise their children, they are very supportive of each other. They immediately look to each other to check out the other’s feelings. They smile at each other and encourage the other’s opinions. Giving them specific positive feedback about these interactions by describing their behav-iors to them may be helpful. Such feedback may encourage them to continue these positive interac-tions. It may also suggest to them that they could apply similar positive means to resolving other differences.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 169
EntropyEntropy is the natural tendency of a system to prog-ress toward disorganization, depletion, and, in es-sence, death. The idea is that nothing lasts forever. People age and eventually die. Young families get older, and children leave to start their own families.
Homeostasis itself is dynamic in that it involves constant change and adjustment. Families are never frozen in time. Family members are constantly changing and responding to new situations and challenges.
Negative EntropyNegative entropy is the process of a system moving toward growth and development. In effect, it is the opposite of entropy. Goals in family treatment often involve striving to make conditions and interactions better than they were before. A relationship between quarreling spouses can improve. Physical abuse of a child can be stopped. Negative entropy must be kept in mind when helping family systems grow and de-velop to their full potential.
EquifinalityEquifinality refers to the idea that there are many dif-ferent means to the same end. It is important not to get locked into only one way of thinking, because in any particular situation, there are alternatives. Some may be better than others, but there are alternatives.
It’s easy to get trapped into tunnel vision in which no other options are apparent. Frequently, family systems need help in defining and evaluating the op-tions available to them.
Consider, for instance, a family in which the fa-ther abruptly loses his job. Instead of wallowing in remorse, they might pursue other alternatives. The family might consider relocating someplace where a similar position is available. The mother, who pre-viously had not worked outside the home, might look into finding a job herself, to help the family’s financial situation. Moving to less expensive housing might be considered. Finally, the father might look into other types of work, at least temporarily. There are always alternatives. The important thing is to recognize and consider them.
DifferentiationDifferentiation is a system’s tendency to move from a more simplified to a more complex existence. In other words, relationships, situations, and interac-tions tend to get more complex over time instead of more simplified.
For example, two people fall in love, marry, and begin to establish their lives together. They have three children, and both parents work full-time in order to save enough for a modest home of their own. As time goes on, marital problems and dis-putes develop as their lives grow more complicated with children and responsibilities. Their initial
Systems Theory Concepts
System: a set of elements that form an orderly, interrelated, and functional whole.
Homeostasis: the tendency for a system to maintain a relatively stable, constant state of equilibrium or balance.
Subsystem: a secondary or subordinate system—a system within a system.
Boundaries: Repeatedly occurring patterns of behavior that characterize the relationships within a system and give that system a particular identity.
Input: energy, information, or communication flow received from other systems.
Output: energy, information, or communication emitted from a system to the environment or to other systems.
Feedback: a system’s receipt of information from an outside source about its own performance or behavior.
Entropy: the natural tendency of a system to progress toward disorganization, depletion, and, in essence, death.
Negative entropy: the process of a system moving toward growth and development.
Equifinality: the idea that there are many different means to the same end.
Differentiation: a system’s tendency to move from a more simplified to a more complex existence.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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170 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
simple life becomes clouded with children’s illnesses, car payments, job stresses, and so on. Systems the-ory provides a framework for viewing this couple’s relationship. It provides for the acknowledgment of increasing complexity. From a helping perspective, the basic fact of the couple’s affection for and com-mitment to each other may need to be identified and emphasized.
LO 4 Assess the Family Life CycleSeveral decades ago, the traditional family life cy-cle was conceptualized as having six major phases (Carter & McGoldrick, 1980). Each phase focused on some emotional transition in terms of intimate relationships with other people and on changes of personal status. The six stages were as follows:
1. Separating an unattached young adult from his or her family of origin
2. Marrying and establishing an identity as part of a couple, rather than as an individual
3. Having and raising young children4. Dealing with adolescent children striving for in-
dependence, and refocusing on the couple rela-tionship as adolescents gain that independence
5. Sending children forth into their own new rela-tionships, addressing midlife crises, and coping with the growing disabilities of aging parents
6. Adjusting to aging and addressing the inevitabil-ity of one’s own death
Today, our perspective on family life cycles is much more adaptable and varied. McGoldrick, Carter, and Garcia-Preto (2011) propose a con-temporary framework for considering family life cycles that emphasizes flexibility and diversity. Spotlight 4.1 explores this new conceptualization of diverse family life cycles. Although the stages re-semble those in the traditional approach, discussion focuses on the variability within each stage. Families are significantly affected by a wide range of condi-tions and issues. The stages described in Spotlight 4.1 may occur, but not necessarily in that order or at all. Rather, each family experiences a complex existence,
LO 5 explain Diverse perspectives on the family life cycleMcGoldrick and her colleagues (2011) articulate the following seven family life-cycle stages; these proposed stages may be considered as a “map” for examining and assessing how families respond to their widely diverse issues and circumstances (pp. 16–17).
Stage 1: Leaving Home: Emerging Young AdultsEarly young adulthood arbitrarily extends from age 18 to 21, and older young adulthood from 22 to about 30 or older (Arnett, 2007; Fulmer, 2011). In the past, young adulthood marked the cessation of the dependence upon family of origin and the entrance into the world of independent living and work. Now, however, the concept of “breaking ties” with the family of origin is no longer so important. Whereas that old model “overemphasized separation,” the new perspective “blends separation and attachment by recognizing the need for individuation while retaining cross-generational relationships” (Fulmer, 2011, p. 176).
Stage 1 is often characterized by entrance into the self-supporting work world, formulation of intimate friendships and relationships, and possibly experimentation with mind-altering substances (Fulmer, 2011). However, these experiences are affected by a number of factors. For example, “poor urban groups have easier access to stronger drugs in their neighborhoods than do college students”; this may put such urban youth who are poor into high-risk groups for drug addiction and the negative repercussions resulting from addiction (Fulmer, 2011, p. 179). College students, on the other hand, may just use drugs “recreationally,” not necessarily suffering such dire consequences.
Another example of diverse circumstances concerns chronic illness and its effects on a family with an emerging young adult. Rolland (2011) explains:
If illness onset coincides with the launching . . . phases of the family life cycle [Stage 1], it can derail a family’s natural momentum. Illness or disability in a young adult may requires a heightened dependency and return to
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.1
(continued)
EP 2aEP 2c
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 171
the family of origin for disease-related caretaking. The autonomy ad individuation of parents and child are in jeopardy, and separate interests and priorities may be relinquished or put on hold. Family dynamics as well as disease severity will influence whether the family’s reversion lo a child-rearing-like structure is a temporary detour or a permanent reversal. (p. 357)
Stage 2: Joining of Families Through Marriage/UnionTo varying degrees, marriage can require adjustment, compromise, and snuggle. Even small issues like how to arrange cereal boxes on the shelf, make spaghetti, or take out the garbage can require communication and cooperation. People going through Stage 2 may form a commitment with each other and readjust their relationships with friends and family as they establish themselves as a couple (McGoldrick, 2011).
However, numerous issues can make a couple’s adjustment to each other more difficult (McGoldrick, 2011). These include inadequate jobs or resources, differences in “religious, racial, ethnic, or class background,” disparities in “financial power, socioeconomic status, education, career option or skills,” and “issues with family of origin” (e.g., poor relationships with parents or siblings, financial dependence on parents, or living too far away or too close) (p. 210).
Gay and lesbian couples may face additional issues, such as loss of external family support, lack of legal acknowledgment, barriers to marriage, safety concerns, and job and/or financial discrimination based solely on their relationship status. Furthermore, “the stigmatizing of homosexual couples by our society means that their relationships are often not validated by their families or communities and they must cope with prejudice on a daily basis. The AIDS crisis produced a terrible trauma for the gay community and its impact on a whole generation of gay men at the point of forming couple relationships cannot be underestimated” (McGoldrick, 2011, p. 201).
Stage 3: Families with Young ChildrenCultural values significantly affect how children are socialized, what values they acquire, and what behaviors they learn. “One cannot view the socialization of certain behaviors independently from the cultural context. Cultures define the basic values and ideals as well as the agents who teach the values and the settings in which they are taught” (Gardiner, Mutter, & Kosmitzki, 1998, p. 148). Greder and Allen (2007) reflect that “cultural traditions shape parenting by influencing child-rearing practices, expectations of roles of children at different ages and stages of development, where families live, family structure, and roles and responsibilities of adults in families” (p. 123). Spotlights 4.2 and 4.3 discuss further the influence of culture.
Greder and Allen (2007) continue that economic hardship also severely affects parenting ability:
Households headed by single mothers, individuals, and families from ethnic minority groups and families with pre-school children are overrepresented among those in the population who live in poverty . . . Geography and generations also play important roles in determining who becomes poor, as do factors such as adolescent parenting, insufficient education, lack of job training, and chronic unemployment. Limited access to health care (and resulting poor health outcomes), inadequate housing and homelessness and violent or unsupportive neighborhoods all contribute to the economic barriers confronting poor families. (p. 125)
Stage 4: Families with AdolescentsIn the United States, adolescence can be a difficult period. Adolescents strive to establish their own identities, which often results in conflict with parents. Parents often struggle to maintain control, while adolescents vehemently resist it. Ethnic diversity and cultural values can add to the complexity of these scenarios.
As later chapters will explore, identity development is very important in adolescence. It, too, is subject to diverse factors. Preto (2011) addresses identity development for adolescents of color:
For African Americans, Latinos, Asians, and other adolescents of color, forming an identity goes beyond values and beliefs about gender, since they have to first cope with how society defines them, marginalizes, and oppresses them. For African Americans, forming a positive identity as a Black male or Black female in a racist society in which being Black has been demeaned for centuries poses a grave challenge for adolescents and their parents . . . Although there has been an increased visibility of African Americans in the popular culture, even more so since the election of Barack Obama as president the insidious effects of racism on the everyday lives of Blacks in this country hasn’t gone away. (p. 236)
Social class also impacts the conditions surrounding and the opportunities provided for adolescents. For example, families in the upper-level social classes, who have higher levels of education and greater income potential, view adolescents as needing attention, direction, and safekeeping; in contrast, working-class and poor families regard their adolescents as active participants needed to help with important family responsibilities such as washing, cooking, and babysitting (Kliman, 2011).
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.1 (continued)
(continued)
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172 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Stage 5: Launching Children and Moving on at MidlifeWhen children leave home to be on their own, family life often changes dramatically in many ways (McGoldrick et al., 2011). The original couple must reestablish itself as its own system. Relationships are developed with grown children, their partners, and grandchildren. The couple may establish new interests, activities, and relationships to replace the time no longer needed for child-care duties. The couple system’s own parents may require help and attention as they themselves age.
However, Stage 5 is also characterized by great diversity (Preto & Blacker, 2011). People may be married or in permanent couple systems, divorced, single, or remarried (possibly multiple times) by this stage of life. Some people are well adjusted. Others may face the clichés of a “midlife crisis” or “the empty nest syndrome.” People with greater assets and higher socioeconomic status often enter midlife in good health, eagerly seeking out new and exciting experiences. However, people in the lower socioeconomic classes frequently experience economic hardship, especially with diminishing availability of jobs, industrial downsizing and movement of production to other countries, and work environments characterized by escalating technology.
Stage 6: Families in Late Middle AgeFamilies in late middle age often face a range of conditions (Walsh, 2011). Stage 6 is often characterized by retirement and grandparenthood. Many people remain vibrant and healthy. As with other stages in life, socioeconomic status and available resources dramatically affect the quality of life in late middle age. People with many resources can experience travel, recreational pursuits, and good living conditions. People with inadequate resources may be forced to keep working, sometimes taking minimum-wage jobs to keep them afloat. Such people may not have adequate housing, food, or health care.
Other aspects of diversity, including race, also affect late middle age. For instance, increasing numbers of African American grandparents are assuming responsibility for their grandchildren (Brownell & Fenley, 2009; Cox, 2002, 2005; Diller, 2015; Misiewicz, 2012; Sue & Sue, 2008). Primary reasons include crack cocaine or alcohol addiction, incarceration for drug- or alcohol-related crimes, mental illness, and unwillingness to surrender custody of grandchildren to public foster care (Cox, 2002, 2005). “Surrogate parenting has been a pattern for African American grandparents in U.S. society” (Cox, 2002, p. 46).
These grandparents experience undue pressures when assuming such responsibility and are “prone to an increased incidence or exacerbation of depression and insomnia, hypertension, back and stomach problems . . . as well as increased use of alcohol and cigarettes . . . In addition,
grandparents tend to ignore their problems and associated stresses to meet the needs of their grandchildren” (Cox, 2002, p. 46).
Cox (2002) calls for empowerment practice on their behalf and explains: “The immediate goals of empowerment practice are to help clients achieve a sense of personal power, become more aware of connections between individual and community problems, develop helping skills, and work collaboratively toward social change” (p. 46, citing Gutierrez, GlenMaye, & DeLois, 1995).
Cox calls for providing grandparents with information on a range of relevant topics and teaching them various skills to empower them. The recommended curriculum includes the following content: “(1) introduction to empowerment; (2) importance of self-esteem; (3) communicating with grandchildren; (4) dealing with loss and grief; (5) helping grandchildren deal with loss; (6) dealing with behavior problems; (7) talking to grandchildren about sex, HIV/AIDS, and drugs; (8) legal and entitlement issues; (9) developing advocacy skills; (10) negotiating systems; [and] (11) making presentations” so that they can share their knowledge with others (p. 47).
Stage 7: Families Nearing the End of LifeFacing the reality that life is coming to an end is important for families (McGoldrick et al., 2011). Often, this involves people dealing with losses, including the deaths of partners and friends. Preparing for one’s own death and legacy is also part of this stage. Decisions may be made about where to reside as health declines and increased supportive care is required.
Great diversity characterizes this stage. Depending on your cultural background, there are numerous ways of viewing and dealing with old age and death. For example, Dhooper and Moore (2001) maintain that
Native American* [older adults] . . . those aged 65 and above, are more traditional in their philosophy and values and have a deeper understanding of racism and oppression against Native people as a result of having a longer history of experience with these forces. [Early in the last century] . . . the BIA [Bureau of Indian Affairs]
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.1 (continued)
*“Note that American Indian and Native American are both accepted ter ms for referring to indigenous peoples of North America, although Native American is a broader designation because the U.S. government includes Hawaiians and Samoans in this category. There are close to 450 Native groups” (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 75). Another term used to refer to indigenous peoples of North America is First Nations Peoples. Lum (2003) comments that “there is no consensus about which term is best, yet some Native people have strong preferences for one term over the others. These terms all include many different groups of distinct people. Use of such broad terms tends to obscure diversity. Generally, when speaking of a particular Native person or nation (such as Comanche or Oneida), it is best to employ the specific label used by those people rather than a more general term such as Native American” (p. 197).
(continued)
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 173
sanctioned field agents to alter Native customs. “Forbidden were the wearing of long hair by males, face painting of both sexes, and wearing Indian dress” (Hirschfelder & Kreipe de Montano, 1993, p. 22) . . . The [older adults] . . . have been the vanguards of their culture and have passed down their traditions and cultural beliefs throughout the generations. Through the [older adults] . . . “traditional values are sustained . . . The ancient languages are spoken and taught, traditional ceremonies are observed and baskets are woven” (L. Hall, 1997, p. 755). As such they are held in high regard by their people and are treated respectfully. “Generally Native American traditional values consist of sharing, cooperation and a deep respect for elders” (Garrett, 1999, p. 87). (p. 191)
Similarly, various cultures view and deal with death very differently. Consider the approach assumed by the Lebanese:
Lebanese families are generally very expressive in their response to death, even after several generations of living in the United States. Extreme displays of emotion are common, and it is not unusual for older family members to ask the deceased to get up and perform a favored deed one last time (i.e., to dubkee, a Lebanese dance, or cook a favored meal). After the deceased is unable to respond to the request, the grief of the family is amplified and followed by wailing and crying. For immigrant Lebanese several decades ago, it was not uncommon to jump into the grave at the cemetery if a child had preceded a parent in death. In recent times Lebanese American reactions to death are less dramatic but still highly emotional and demonstrative. Calmness at wakes is perceived as a lack of love for the deceased, and emotional outbursts are perceived as respect for the deceased. Because of the strong bonds and emotional attachments of Lebanese families, wakes and funerals are highly charged experiences. (Simon, 1996, p. 374)
The Hindu perception and treatment of death involves the following:
Death is a particularly potent symbolic event among Hindus, given their beliefs about karma [destiny] . . . As with weddings, traditional rituals associated with death and mourning are likely to be modified when Indians live in the United States.
Mourning cycles vary, but . . . customs include a 10- to 12-day mourning ritual . . .in addition to requiring extensive absence from work. In keeping with Indian sex-role traditions, widows are expected to perform many rituals of sacrifice glorifying the family, whereas widowers and other family members are not required to observe such rites. (Almeida, 1996, p. 408)
Mindell (2007) explains Jewish families’ view and handling of death:
Ju d a i s m , re ga rd l e s s o f d e n o m i n a t i o n — Re fo r m , Conservative, or Orthodox—has the overriding values of honoring the dead and comforting the mourners. Burial is usually within twenty-four hours after the death and the funeral service begins with the cutting of a garment or a black ribbon attached to the mourners, the immediate family of the deceased. This ritual is a visual representation of the individual being separated—cut away—from the loved one. The period of mourning at home after the burial lasts for one week. This ritual is called Shiva, the Hebrew word for seven. Friends, family, and neighbors visit the mourners in the home during Shiva, which provides the opportunity to share stories about the deceased, how his or her life touched others, and provide the bereaved a supportive environment to also share memories and to grieve. The first thirty days, referred to as Sheloshim, the Hebrew word for thirty, after the funeral is a time when the family might attend morning and evening services. Mourning ends after the first year, the anniversary of the death, when a tombstone is dedicated. At each anniversary of the death, the Yahzeit, the family lights a special twenty-four-hour memorial candle. Mourning is seen as a process that has stages and takes time. Rituals enable the living to remember the dead.
The religious customs that are practiced during the continuum of an individual’s life allow one to cope with difficult happenings, experiences, and emotions, in a supportive, emotional “home” as she or he struggles to make sense out of events that seem to have no meaning. The manner in which the struggle is done, the emotions expressed, and how the community supports its members reflect the religious and cultural history of the group and help to define the identity of the members of the group. (pp. 231–232)
Additional Issues Affecting Multiple Phases of the Family Life CycleMany other dimensions of diversity affect the life cycle of families and individuals. For example, Chapter 13 presents material on the life cycle of LGBTQ families and individuals. We will arbitrarily address two additional issues here that affect various life-cycle stages—adults who remain single and families dealing with immigration status.
Single AdultsSimply put, many adults for various reasons neither marry nor commit themselves to long-term intimate partnerships. The seven-stage family life cycle just described doesn’t really apply to them. The demographic picture has changed. More people remain single now than in past decades, people who do
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.1 (continued)
(continued)
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174 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
marry do so later than before, people often delay childbearing, and many people live much longer than they have in the past (Berliner, Jacob, & Schwartzberg, 2011).
Berliner and her colleagues (2011) describe four life-cycle stages often encountered by people who remain single. First, during their 20s, people establish their adult status. They make the transition from being dependent on their family of origin to starting their independent lives. They develop new contexts for living by establishing work status and friendship relationships.
During the second stage in their 30s, single adults may face “the single crises” (Berliner et al., 2011, p. 166). They contend with the condition that they are single and may remain so. They may develop new life objectives and possibilities that don’t include marriage. They may consider having children.
In their third phase of midlife, single adults may accept the fact that they may indeed neither marry nor have children. The dream of “the perfect family” may not materialize. They may take a new look at the status of work in their lives and attend to their financial future as single adults. They determine to view their status as single adults as valid and positive. Establishing social networks of friends for emotional support is also important.
The fourth phase entails “putting it all together” (Berliner et al., 2011, p. 166). This concerns single adults making decisions about work and their financial future. It means stressing the positive aspects of being free and independent. It also involves planning for future living conditions in the case of failing health. Finally, they cope with the decreasing health and death of people important to them.
Immigration StatusImmigration status is “a person’s position in terms of legal rights and residency when entering and residing in a country that is not that person’s legal country of origin” (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2012b, p. 26). Migrating from one country to another can powerfully affect a family’s life cycle.
People who migrate can assume any of the following statuses:
● Immigrants “are those individuals who depart their coun-try of origin voluntarily in search of better economic and living arrangement” (Delgado, Jones, & Rohani, 2005, p. 5). They may be either permanent or temporary (e.g., students or seasonal workers); they may have either legal or illegal status, as described next (Potocky, 2008).
● Undocumented immigrants “are those individuals who en-ter this country without proper (legal) documentation, and have done so for reasons similar to those who are in this country as immigrants” (Delgado et al., 2005, p. 5). They sometimes are referred to as illegal aliens.
● Refugees “are those individuals who are forced to leave their country because of human rights violations and threats to safety” (Delgado et al., 2005, p. 5). They may also be vic-tims of natural or man-made disasters (Potocky, 2008).
Migration to a new country and environment can dramatically affect a family’s life cycle (Falicov, 2011).
Regardless of where a family is in its life cycle, migration forces family members to face major changes and disruptions. It also involves experiencing the losses of the known and familiar patterns of their old existence. “The age at the time of migration, the stage of personal development, and the length of stay in the adopted country alter how migration is constructed and lived over time” (Falicov, 2011, p. 337). Ability to adapt to new circumstances varies widely depending on the family member’s age. The experience will be very different for babies, “school-age children, adolescents, young adults,” and older adults (Falicov, 2011, p. 337). For example, young children generally have the ability to acquire a new language much more easily than older adults (Potocky, 2008).
There are many dimensions to the migration experience and many questions to ask about how the experience affects various family members. Garcia (2009) raises issues and questions to address in order to understand the family’s circumstances at whatever phase of the life cycle they’re in:
1. The process of immigration: Was the move voluntary or involuntary? Anticipated or not anticipated? What were the points of transit on the way to the United States? Who was left behind, what separations occurred with family members? What is the status of immigration documentation?
2. Social power changes and coping: Have there been socioeco-nomic, educational, occupational adjustments? Shifts in new employment or unemployment status? Shifts in family deci-sion making due to structural family changes? What are the effects of language and literacy fluency in the new country? Is the immigrant facing workplace-related stressors? Is so, what types of stressors (e.g., supervisory, interpersonal, xe-nophobic [involving an intense dislike or fear of foreigners or foreign customs], immigration authorities)?
3. Economic and housing resources: What are the immigrant’s debt commitments and assets? What is the status of hous-ing (e.g., quality), transportation, access to communication technology?
4. Physical and psychological health status: Are the immi-grant’s basic needs for food and shelter being met? Can the immigrant utilize and/or access professional health providers and/or cultural healers? Are there any antecedent health conditions prior to immigration, during the immigration process (e.g., loss of health, limb)? What is the immigrant’s current health status?
5. Family system and social networks: What are the family constellations, structures, communication patterns, multi-generational experiences, and coping abilities? What social support systems, if any, is the family involved with (e.g., ex-tended family, friends, religious, community, political, recre-ational)? To what degree is the individual or family isolated and/or active with social contacts?
6. Cultural: Profile and qualities of individuals’ social iden-tity? In what ways and to what degree is the individual identified with his or her traditional culture, with the new American culture, and/or with other cultures (e.g., religious, people with disabilities, gender orientation)? (pp. 84–85)
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.1 (continued)
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 175
as a system and as a collection of individuals, within an environmental context involving “race, ethnicity, class, gender, sexual orientation, religion, age, family status” and “disability” (p. 18). Additionally, “cur-rent or longstanding social, political, and economic issues” directly affect family life and the family life cycle; such matters include “random violence, af-firmative action, de facto school and neighborhood segregation, gay and lesbian adoption or marriage, welfare reform, abortion rights, the education of all our children, prejudice against legal and illegal im-migrants, health care and insurance, tax cuts, layoffs, social services to [older adults] . . . and other groups, cost and availability of infertility treatments, and physician-assisted suicide” (p. 18).
Within the context of the family system’s life cy-cle, we will now turn our attention back to the so-cial development of young children. We will focus on how children become integrated into their family system and how they learn to behave (or misbehave). Learning theory provides a relevant, conceptual base for understanding how socialization and learning occur. Thus, we will emphasize the theoretical basis for learning theory and its applications to practical parenting.
LO 6 Describe Learning Theory“Mom! I want a candy bar! You promised! I want one right now! Mom!” Four-year-old Huey screamed as loudly as he possibly could. He and his mother were standing in the checkout line at the local super-market. An older adult woman was checking out in front of them. Two other women and a man were waiting in line behind them.
Huey’s mother saw everybody looking at her and her young son. Huey simply would not stop screaming. She tried to shush him. She scolded him in as much of a whisper as she could muster. She threatened that he would never see the inside of a McDonald’s again. Absolutely nothing would work. Huey just kept on screaming.
Finally, in total exasperation, his mother grabbed the nearest candy bar off the shelf, ripped off the wrapper, and literally stuck the thing into Huey’s mouth. A peaceful silence came over the grocery store. All witnessing the event breathed a sigh of relief. Huey stood there with a happy smile on his sticky face. One might almost say he was gloating.
The family environment has already been estab-lished as the primary agent of children’s socializa-tion. It provides the critical social environment in which children learn. The next logical question to address concerns how children learn. The social and emotional development of children is frequently a focus of social work intervention. Children some-times create behavior problems. They become dif-ficult for parents and other supervising adults to manage. When they enter school, these management problems often continue. Teachers and adminis-tration find some children difficult to control. Fre-quently, as children get older, problems escalate.
Children can learn how to be affectionate, consid-erate, fun-loving, and responsible. But they can also learn how to be selfish, spoiled, and inconsiderate. This latter state is not good for parents and other supervising adults, nor for the children themselves. Children need to cooperate with others. They need to know how to get along in social settings in order to become emotionally mature, well-adjusted adults. Learning theory concepts are useful for recognizing why anyone, child or adult, behaves the way he does. However, the concepts are especially helpful when addressing the issue of behavior management.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of TheoryIn order to change behavior, it first must be under-stood. Learning theory is a theoretical orientation that conceptualizes the social environment in terms of behavior, its preceding events, and its subse-quent consequences. It posits that behavior can be learned, and therefore maladaptive behavior can be unlearned. Learning theory provides a framework for understanding how behavior develops. We will focus on learning theory for several reasons. First, it emphasizes the social functioning of people within their environments. The total person in dynamic in-teraction with all aspects of the environment is the focus of attention. This is in contrast to many other theoretical approaches that focus primarily on the individual’s personality or isolated history.
Second, learning theory emphasizes the impor-tance of assessing observable behaviors. It also stresses the use of behaviorally specific terms in de-fining behaviors. This helps to make any particular behavior more clearly understandable.
Finally, learning theory provides a positive ap-proach. The underlying idea is that behaviors
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176 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
develop through learning them, and therefore unde-sirable behaviors can be unlearned. This allows for positive behavioral changes. Instead of individuals being perceived as victims of their personal histories and personality defects, they are seen as dynamic liv-ing beings capable of change.
Behavior modification involves the therapeutic ap-plication of learning theory principles. Much evidence supports the effectiveness of behavioral techniques for a wide variety of human problems and learning situations (Degangi & Kendall, 2008; Kazdin, 2013; Miltenberger, 2012; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010; Sundel & Sundel, 2005; Wilson, 2011).
Respondent ConditioningOne view of understanding behavior focuses on a stimulus and the response resulting from that stim-ulus. A stimulus is “an object or event that can be detected by one of the senses, and thus has the po-tential to influence the person” (Miltenberger, 2012, p. 66). A particular stimulus elicits a particular re-sponse. The stimulus can be a word, a sight, or a sound.
For example, Martha, who has been on a strict diet for a week, stops by to visit her friend Evelyn. Evelyn is in the process of preparing a lobster din-ner. She is also baking a German chocolate cake for dessert. Martha begins salivating at the thought of such appetizing food. Martha’s response, salivation, occurs as a result of the stimulus, witnessing Evelyn’s preparation of the wonderful, albeit fattening, food. Figure 4.1 portrays this relationship.
Much respondent behavior is unlearned; that is, a response is naturally emitted after exposure to a stim-ulus. This stimulus is called an unconditioned (natu-rally occurring) stimulus. Respondent conditioning (also called classical or Pavlovian conditioning) occurs when a person learns to respond to a new stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response. This new stimulus is called a conditioned (learned) stimulus. In order to accomplish this, the new stimulus is paired with the stimulus that elicited the response naturally. The person then learns to associate the new stimulus
with a particular response even though it had noth-ing to do with that response originally.
For example, Mr. Bartholomew, a third-grade teacher, slaps students very hard on the hand when they talk out of turn. (This punitive physical be-havior, of course, could get Mr. Bartholomew into a LOT of trouble.) As a result of this stimulus, the slapping, students fear Mr. Bartholomew. By as-sociating Mr. Bartholomew with getting a slap on the hand, the students eventually learn to fear Mr. Bartholomew even when he isn’t slapping them. Mr. Bartholomew himself has been paired with the hand slapping until he elicits the same response that the slapping did. Figure 4.2 helps to illustrate this relationship.
Some behavioral techniques used by social work-ers involve the principles of respondent condition-ing. Systematic desensitization provides an example. Systematic desensitization is a procedure in which a person with a phobia practices relaxation while imagining scenes of the fear-producing stimulus. A phobia is “a fear in which the level of anxiety or es-cape and avoidance behavior is severe enough to dis-rupt the person’s life” (Miltenberger, 2012, p. 552). The extreme fear or anxiety may involve almost any-thing. Examples include snakes, enclosed places, or school.
Systematic desensitization usually has two major thrusts. First, the client is exposed very gradually to the thing he or she fears. Second, while the client is being exposed to the fearful item or event, he or she is also taught an incompatible response. The in-compatible response must be something that cannot
Lobster and Germanchocolate cake
(Unconditioned stimulus)
Martha’s salivation(Response)
FIGURE 4.1 A Stimulus–Response Relationship
Hand slapping(Unconditioned stimulus)
(Paired with)Mr. Bartholomew
(Becomes)Mr. Bartholomew
without hand slapping(Conditioned stimulus)
Students coweringin terror
(Response)
Students coweringin terror
(Response)
FIGURE 4.2 Respondent Conditioning
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 17 7
occur at the same time as the anxiety and fear. A good example of an incompatible response is pro-gressive relaxation.
For example, the client first learns how to control his or her body and relax. Then the standard proce-dure is that he or she is exposed to the feared item or event in increasing amounts or degrees. A person who fears rats might first be shown a picture of a rat in the distance while, at the same time, using his or her newly acquired relaxation skills. Anxiety and fear cannot occur while the individual is in a relaxed state. They are incompatible responses.
The individual might then be shown an 8-by-10-inch photo of a rat. Once again, the individual would use relaxation techniques to prevent anxiety from occurring. The client would be exposed to rats in a more and more direct manner until the client could actually hold a laboratory rat in his or her hand. The client would gradually learn to use the in-compatible relaxation technique to quell any anxiety that rats might once have elicited.
A variety of techniques based on respondent con-ditioning have also been used to treat enuresis, or bed-wetting, overeating, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and sexual deviations (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2013; Sundel & Sundel, 2005). However, they are not nearly as abundant nor are they as common as those behavioral techniques based on operant conditioning, discussed in a later section.
ModelingA second perspective on understanding behavior and learning involves modeling, the learning of behavior by observing another individual engaging in that be-havior. In order to learn from a model, an individual does not necessarily have to participate in the behav-ior. An individual only needs to watch how a model performs the behavior. For obvious reasons, model-ing is also called observational learning. A behavior can be learned simply by observing its occurrence.
Modeling is important within the context of prac-tical parenting. Parents can model appropriate be-havior for their children. For example, a father might act as a model for his son concerning how to play baseball. The father can teach his son how to throw and catch a ball by doing it himself. The child can learn by watching his father.
In social work intervention, modeling can be used to model appropriate treatment of children so that
parents may observe. For example, 5-year-old Larry, who frequently has behavior problems, may pick up a pencil that the social worker accidentally dropped and return it to the social worker. The social worker may then model for the parent how the child can be positively reinforced for his good behavior. The so-cial worker may say, “Thank you for picking up my pencil for me, Larry. That was very helpful of you.”
Another example of modeling within a social work practice context is role playing, practicing behavior through a trial run in preparation for a later situation in which some goal is to be achieved (such as gaining greater understanding of another’s position or learning more effective communica-tion skills). For example, a social worker might ask a mother who has trouble controlling her son to role-play that son and mimic his behavior. She is instructed to act the way she thinks her son would act. The social worker may then model for the par-ent some appropriate, effective things to say to the son when the son behaves in that way. Such model-ing provides the opportunity for the parent to learn new ways of responding to her son.
Modeling can also teach children inappropri-ate and ineffective behavior. For example, consider a mother who strikes other family members when-ever she gets the least bit irritated with them. She is likely to act as a model for that type of behavior. Her children may learn that striking others is the way to express their anger.
Some classic research studied the effects of positive and negative consequences on modeling (Bandura, 1965). Children were shown a film of an adult hitting and kicking a large doll, obviously modeling aggres-sive behavior. Afterward, the children were divided into three groups. Each group then observed the model experiencing different respective consequences. One group of children viewed the model being pun-ished for the aggressive behavior. Another group of children saw the model being rewarded for the same behavior. A third group of children saw the model being ignored. The children were then placed in situ-ations where they could display aggression. Children who saw the model receive a reward for aggressive behavior and those who saw him experience no con-sequences clearly displayed more aggressive behavior than those children who saw the model punished. It was ascertained that all the children had learned the aggressive behavior; when they were told they would receive a reward for being aggressive, they all could
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178 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
indeed be aggressive. The conclusion is that modeling behavior can be affected both by consequences to the model and to the observer.
Other conditions can also affect the effectiveness of modeling or the degree to which modeling works. These conditions include “the similarity of the model to the observer; the prestige, status, and expertise of the model; and the number of models observed. As a general rule, imitation of a model by an observer is greater when the model is similar to the observer, more prestigious, and higher in status and expertise than the observer and when several models per-form the same behavior” (Kazdin, 2008a, pp. 24–25; Miltenberger, 2012; Sundel & Sundel, 2005).
Modeling has been used in a variety of clinical settings, including the control of fear and the devel-opment of social skills. Usually, it’s used in conjunc-tion with other behavioral techniques.
Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning is one of the dominant types of learning focused on in the United States. It allows for the easiest and most practical understanding of behavior. Many treatment applications are based on the principles of operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is “a type of learning in which behaviors are influenced primarily by the consequences that follow them” (Kazdin, 2008a, p. 458; 2013). New behaviors can be shaped, weak
behaviors can be strengthened, strong behaviors can be maintained, and undesirable behaviors can be weakened and eliminated. The emphasis lies on the consequences of behavior. What follows a particular behavior affects how frequently that behavior will occur again, as illustrated in Highlight 4.1.
The ABCs of BehaviorOne way of conceptualizing operant behavior is to divide it into its primary parts, known as anteced-ents, behaviors, and consequences. Another way of referring to them is the ABCs of behavior.
Antecedents are the events occurring immediately before the behavior itself. These events set the stage for the behavior to occur. For instance, some indi-viduals state that they are able to quit smoking ciga-rettes except when they are socializing at a party. The party conditions act as a stimulus for smoking be-havior, whereas other environments do not. In other words, the party setting acts as an antecedent for smoking behavior.
Behavior is “any observable and measurable re-sponse or act . . . Behavior is occasionally broadly defined to include cognitions, psychophysiological reactions, and feelings, which may not be directly observable but are defined in terms that can be mea-sured by means of various assessment strategies” (Kazdin, 2008a, p. 450; Miltenberger, 2012). The important phrase here is that behavior is “defined
HIGHLIGHT 4.1
consequences and Recurring BehaviorThe Johnsons hired their neighbor, 9-year-old Eric, to mow their lawn once a week during the summer. Eric, not being sophisticated in the ways of money management, failed to discuss how much he would be paid per hour. Eric slaved away for four hours one Saturday afternoon when he would rather have been playing baseball.
Whe n Eric had finished, Mr. Johnson came out, complimented Eric on what a fine job he had done, and gave him $12 for his trouble. Unfortunately, $12 worked out to be $3 per hour. Mr. Johnson thought this was more than adequate. Mr. Johnson himself had been paid only a grand total of $1 for doing a similar job when he was a boy. Eric, however, felt this was more than chintzy on Mr. Johnson’s part. He knew that $12 would barely begin to cover the brand new Xbox of his dreams.
The consequences for Eric’s lawn-mowing behavior were not positive. He did not receive his expected $32. Thus, Eric never mowed Mr. Johnson’s lawn again. Instead he turned to other, more generous and benevolent neighbors to upgrade his financial future. He also learned to make salary one of the first items on his business agenda. If Mr. Johnson had given him his expected rate of $8 an hour, Eric would have been a dependable and industrious worker for him throughout the summer. In other words, more favorable consequences for Erie would have encouraged his lawn-mowing behavior. He would have been conditioned to mow Mr. Johnson’s lawn. As it turned out, Mr. Johnson was doomed to mowing his own lawn for the remainder of the summer.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 179
in terms that can be measured.” Therefore, even thoughts and feelings can be changed as long as words can be found to clearly describe what they are. For instance, specific messages that people send to themselves can be altered as long as these messages can be clearly defined and measured. A woman who frequently tells herself “I am so fat,” can have that message changed to “I am a worthwhile person.” Each time she tells herself this message, it can be noted, so that the overall frequency can be measured.
Most behavior involved in operant conditioning is observable. Even thoughts and feelings frequently occur with accompanying behaviors. For example, Ieasha is a 6-year-old who has been clinically di-agnosed as depressed. Any thoughts she has about being depressed are not noticeable. However, she makes frequent statements about what a bad girl she is, how her parents don’t like her, and what it would be like to die. These statements can be observed and noted. Such statements might be used as indicators for childhood depression.
Ieasha’s statements can also be measured; that is, the types of statements she makes and how often she makes them can be counted and evaluated. She might make a statement concerning what a bad girl she is 12 times per day, about how her parents dis-like her 5 times per day, and about her own death 16 times per day. When her depression begins to sub-side, these types of verbal statements may decrease in frequency and severity. For example, Ieasha may make derogatory remarks about herself only 4 times per day instead of 12. She may say only once each day that her parents dislike her. Statements about death may disappear altogether.
In addition to verbal behavior, physical behav-ior or actions may also be observed and measured. Besides making statements that indicate she’s depressed, Ieasha may spend much of her time sit-ting in a corner, sucking her thumb, and gazing off into space. The exact amount of time she spends dis-playing these specific behaviors may be observed and measured. For example, Ieasha initially may spend five hours each day sitting in a corner. When depres-sion begins to wane, she may spend only half an hour in the corner.
The final component as a basis for operant con-ditioning involves the consequences of the behav-ior. A consequence may be either something that is given or something that is withdrawn or delayed. In other words, something happens as a direct result
of a particular behavior. Consequences are best de-scribed in terms of reinforcement and punishment.
ReinforcementReinforcement refers to a procedure or consequence that increases the frequency of the behavior imme-diately preceding it. If the behavior is already occur-ring at a high level of frequency, then reinforcement maintains the behavior’s frequency. A behavior oc-curs under certain antecedent conditions. If the consequences of the behavior serve to make that behavior occur more often or be maintained at its current high rate, then those consequences are con-sidered reinforcing. Reinforcers strengthen behaviors and make them more likely to occur in the future.
Positive ReinforcementReinforcement can be either positive or negative. Positive reinforcement refers to positive events or consequences that follow a behavior and strengthen it. In other words, something is added to a situation and encourages a particular behavior. For example, 8-year-old Herbie receives a weekly allowance of $15 if he straightens up his room and throws all of his dirty laundry down the clothes chute. Receiving his allowance serves to strengthen, or positively rein-force, Herbie’s cleaning behavior.
Negative ReinforcementNegative reinforcement is the removal of a negative event or consequence that serves to increase the fre-quency of a behavior. There are two important aspects of this definition. First, something must be removed from the situation. Second, the frequency of a par-ticular behavior is increased. In this manner, positive and negative reinforcement resemble each other. Both function as reinforcement that, by definition, serves to increase or maintain the frequency of a behavior.
A good example of negative reinforcement is a seatbelt buzzer in a car. The car door is opened, and a loud and annoying buzzer is activated. It will not stop until the driver’s seatbelt is fastened. Concep-tually, the buzzer functions as a negative reinforcer because it increases the frequency of buckling seat belts. The buzzer is also negative or aversive. It in-creases seatbelt buckling behavior because people are motivated to stop (remove) it.
To take another example of negative reinforce-ment, suppose Orlando, a college sophomore, is try-ing to study in his dorm room one Thursday night.
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18 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
His next-door neighbor, Gavin, has decided that Thursday nights are much better for partying than for studying. Gavin, therefore, decides to invite a bunch of his friends over to take some illegal sub-stance. Gavin cranks up his speakers to the highest vibration level it can tolerate.
Orlando tries to ignore this nuisance and contin-ues trying to study until he can’t stand it anymore. In a state of fury, he stomps up to the wall between the rooms, smashes his fist on it several times, and screams, “Shut the #$@*$%& up in there!”
On the other side of the wall, Gavin says to his buddies, “That guy is such a dweeb. If I don’t turn it down, he’ll probably narc on me to the hall director. Let’s go somewhere else.” He turns off his speakers and leaves with his friends.
Evaluating this scenario with learning theory leads to several conclusions. First, Orlando’s scream-ing behavior served as negative reinforcement for Gavin’s turning off his speakers and leaving the room. Orlando’s screaming was aversive to Gavin. In order to terminate it, Gavin turned off his music and left. Moreover, from then on, Gavin made it a point to turn off his speakers whenever Orlando was around and leave his room when he wanted to party. Thus, Orlando’s (aversive) screaming reinforced (in-creased the frequency of) Gavin’s turning off his speakers and leaving his room when he wanted to party.
Looking at his situation from another perspective, Gavin’s room-leaving behavior served as positive reinforcement for Orlando’s screaming behavior. Orlando was positively reinforced for screaming be-cause he got what he wanted—namely, peace and quiet. Orlando became much more likely to scream at Gavin in the future (i.e., Orlando was reinforced), because he immediately received something positive as a result of his behavior.
Although at first glance this may appear obvious and simplistic, it is easy to become confused about the type of reinforcement that is occurring. In any particular situation, both positive and negative re-inforcement may be taking place at the same time. Consider, for instance, the example given initially to illustrate learning theory, involving 4-year-old Huey and his mother at the supermarket. Huey yelled for a candy bar. His mother finally gave in and thrust one into his mouth. His crying immediately stopped. Both positive and negative reinforcement were oc-curring in this example. Mother’s giving Huey the
candy bar served as a positive reinforcer. Huey re-ceived something positive that he valued. At the same time he learned that he could get exactly what he wanted from his mother by screaming in the su-permarket. Giving him the candy bar positively re-inforced his bad behavior. Therefore, that type of behavior would be more likely to occur in the future.
At the same time, negative reinforcement was oc-curring in this situation. Mother’s giving-in behavior was encouraged or strengthened. She learned that she could stop Huey’s obnoxious yelling by giv-ing him what he wanted—in this case, a candy bar. Huey’s yelling, therefore, acted as negative reinforce-ment. It increased his mother’s giving-in behavior by motivating her to stop—or to escape from—his yelling.
PunishmentPunishment and negative reinforcement are fre-quently mistaken for each other. Perhaps this is because they both concern something negative or aversive. However, they represent two distinctly dif-ferent concepts.
Punishment is the presentation of an aversive event or the removal of a positive reinforcer, which results in a decrease in the frequency of a behavior. Two aspects of this definition are important. First, the result of punishment is a decrease in a behavior’s frequency. This is in direct opposition to negative re-inforcement, which increases a behavior’s frequency.
Second, punishment can be administered in two different ways. One way involves presenting a negative or aversive event immediately after a be-havior occurs. Negative events may include spank-ings, scoldings, electric shocks, additional demands on time, or embarrassing criticisms. For example, 10-year-old Susie hadn’t studied for her social stud-ies exam. Her parents had already complained about the last report card. She just hadn’t given the test much thought until Ms. McGuilicutte was hand-ing out the test papers. Susie looked over her test paper and gasped. Nothing looked even vaguely familiar. She was sitting next to Juana, whom she considered the class genius. She figured that just a few brief glances at Juana’s paper wouldn’t hurt any-body. However, Susie was wrong. Ms. McGuilicutte immediately noticed Susie’s wandering attention. Ms. McGuilicutte swooped down on Susie and con-fiscated her test paper. In front of the entire class
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 181
Susie was told that cheating resulted not only in an F grade, but also in two weeks of detention after school. Susie was mortified. She vowed to herself that she would never cheat again.
Susie received extremely aversive consequences as the result of her cheating behavior. The conse-quences included not only a failing test grade and two weeks of detention, but also humiliation in front of her peers. Her cheating behavior decreased in fre-quency to zero.
The second way in which punishment can be ad-ministered is by withdrawing a positive reinforcer. Once again, the result may be a decrease in the frequency of a particular behavior. For example, 7-year-old Robbie thought it was funny to belch at the table during dinner. Several times his parents asked him to stop belching. Each time Robbie was quiet for about a minute and then started belching again. Finally, his mother stated firmly that such belching was considered rude behavior and that, as punishment, Robbie would not receive the banana split she had planned for his dessert. Robbie whined and pleaded, but his mother refused to give it to him. Robbie loved desserts, and banana splits were his favorite. Robbie never belched at the table again, at least not purposefully. Removal of the positive reinforcer—the banana split—had served as pun-ishment. The punishment resulted in an abrupt de-crease in belching behavior.
It should be emphasized that the term punishment as it is used in learning theory does not necessar-ily mean physical punishment. For some of us, the word may bring to mind pictures of parents putting children over their knees and spanking them. Pun-ishment does not have to be physical. Verbal repri-mands such as a mother saying how disappointed she is that she caught her daughter “making out” with her boyfriend in the family room can also serve as punishment. The reprimand functions as a pun-ishment if the behavior decreases. Likewise, with-drawal of a valued activity, such as not allowing a child to go to a popular movie, can be a punishment if it acts to decrease or stop some negative behavior.
ExtinctionExtinction is the process whereby reinforcement for a behavior stops, resulting in the eventual decrease in frequency and possible eradication of that behav-ior. Reinforcement simply stops; nothing is actively
taken away. Note that extinction and punishment are two separate concepts “In extinction, a consequence that was previously provided no longer follows the re-sponse. An event or stimulus (money, noise) is nei-ther taken away nor presented. In punishment, some aversive event follows a response (a reprimand) or some positive event (money) is taken away” (Kazdin, 2008a, p. 58; 2013; emphasis in original). In everyday life, extinction often takes the form of ignoring a be-havior that was previously reinforced with attention.
An example of extinction concerns the reduction of tantrum behaviors in a 21-month-old child. When put to bed, the child screams until his parents return to the room to comfort him. This provides positive reinforcement for the child’s behavior. The parents are instructed to put the child to bed, leave the room, and ignore his screaming. The first night, the child screams for 45 minutes. However, the next night when the parents leave the room, no screaming oc-curs. Eventually, withdrawing the positive reinforcer of attention results in the total elimination of the child’s tantrums. Ignoring, therefore, can be used as an effective means of extinction.
Here the differences between positive reinforce-ment, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are summarized. Important differences involve what happens and what results with each be-havioral approach.
Extinction occurs with many other reinforcers in various daily situations. For example, if putting a dollar in a coffee machine results in nothing but a gush of clear, hot water without the cup, use of that coffee machine will probably be extinguished. Like-wise, say you’re having difficulty in your biology lab course. You don’t understand what the professor is saying during lectures, and you’re not sure what he wants from you on exams (you’ve already received a D1 on two of them). Three times you try to see your professor during his office hours, and each time he is not there. Eventually, you stop trying to see him, despite your frustration. Your behavior involved in seeing him to get help has been extinguished.
One other aspect of extinction is important to note. Frequently, when reinforcement is initially stopped, a brief increase in the frequency or inten-sity of the behavior may occur. This is referred to as an extinction burst. For example, consider again tan-trums in a small child. When the reinforcement of attention is withdrawn, the child’s behavior may es-calate temporarily. If in the past the child has always
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182 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
received positive reinforcement through attention for his behavior, it may be very confusing suddenly to receive no attention for that very same behavior. The child may try exceptionally hard to get the attention to which he was accustomed. The intensity of the undesirable behavior can seriously strain the pa-tience and tolerance of parents. However, eventually the child will learn that the tantrums are not rein-forced and are therefore simply not worth the effort. Thus, the tantrum behavior is extinguished.
The relationships between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are summarized in Figure 4.3.
LO 7 Apply Learning Theory Concepts to PracticeAs children become socialized, they learn and assim-ilate various behaviors. Because learning is a compli-cated process, sometimes the behaviors they learn are not those that their parents would prefer. Behavior management is a major issue for many parents.
Parents have various alternative ways of respond-ing to a child’s behavior. At any point, an individual can follow alternative plans of action. For each al-ternative, there are consequences. The critical task is to evaluate each alternative and select the one with the most advantageous results. Learning theory con-cepts provide parents with a means of understanding
the alternatives open to them and predicting the po-tential consequences of each alternative. It can help them gain control over their children’s behavior.
An example of parental alternatives in response to behavior is provided by Tung, age 4. At the din-ner table, Tung nonchalantly and without warning says an unmentionable four-letter word. Tung’s par-ents are shocked. At this point, they can respond in several different ways. They can ignore the fact that Tung said the word. Without being given undue at-tention, saying the word may be stopped. A second alternative is to tell Tung calmly that the word is not considered a very nice word. They might add that some people use it when they’re angry and that other people don’t really like to hear it. They might also ask him not to use the word anymore. A third alter-native is for the parents to display their horror and disbelief, scream at Tung never to say that word again, and send him to bed without being allowed to finish his supper.
When this incident actually occurred, the parents opted to respond as described in the third alterna-tive. Poor Tung really didn’t understand what the word meant. He had just heard it on the playground that afternoon. He was amazed at the response of his parents and at the attention he received. His mother reported that for the following two years, he continued to repeat that unmentionable four-letter word virtually everywhere. He said it to the dentist, to the grocer, to the police officer, and even
Positive Negative
Presentpositiveevent
Present aversive eventor
Remove positive reinforcement
Reinforcement stops(it is not taken away)
Removenegative
event
Here the differences between positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are summarized. Important differences involve what happens and what results with each behavioral approach.
Type of behavioral approach: Reinforcement
Increase in the frequencyof behavior
Decrease in the frequencyof behavior
Decrease in the frequencyof behavior
Punishment Extinction
What happens:
What results:
FIGURE 4.3 Positive Reinforcement, Negative Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 18 3
to his grandmother. His mother reported that after a while she would have been willing to pay Tung to stop using that word, if such a strategy would have worked.
In Tung’s situation, his parents’ attention became a strong positive reinforcer. Perhaps if they had stopped and thought in terms of learning theory principles, they could have gained immediate con-trol of the situation and never thought another thing of it.
The Use of Positive ReinforcementPositive reinforcement is based on the very funda-mental idea that behavior is governed by its con-sequences. If the consequences of a particular behavior are positive or appealing, then the individ-ual will tend to behave that way. In other words, the frequency of that behavior will be increased.
Positive reinforcement provides a valuable means of behavioral control. It has been established as an appropriate technique for achieving positive behav-ioral changes in numerous situations (Degangi & Kendall, 2008; Kazdin, 2013; Miltenberger, 2012).
The use of positive reinforcement helps to reduce the risk that clients will begin associating the negative effects of punishment, for example, with the thera-pist, resulting in an aversion to therapy. Positive rein-forcement can also teach individuals exactly how to improve their behavior.
Various aspects of positive reinforcement will be discussed here. First, we’ll examine the types of
Learning Theory Principles
Learning theory: the theoretical orientation that conceptualizes the social environment in terms of behavior, its preceding events, and its subsequent consequences.
Respondent conditioning: Responses that develop when a person learns to respond to a new stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response.
Unconditioned (naturally occurring) stimulus: a stimulus that naturally results in specific response.
Conditioned (learned) stimulus: a stimulus that does not result in a response naturally, but does result in a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits the response naturally (i.e., a person learns to respond to a conditioned stimulus).
Systematic desensitization: the procedure whereby a person with a phobia practices relaxation while imagining scenes of the fear-producing stimulus, with the intent of decreasing that fear.
Modeling: the learning of behavior by observing another individual engaging in that behavior.
Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which behaviors are influenced primarily by the consequences that follow them.
Reinforcement: a procedure or consequence that increases the frequency of the behavior immediately preceding it.
Positive reinforcement: positive events or consequences that follow a behavior and strengthen it.
Negative reinforcement: the removal of a negative event or consequence that serves to increase the frequency of a behavior.
Punishment: the presentation of an aversive event or the removal of a positive reinforcer, which results in a decrease in the frequency of a behavior.
Extinction: the process whereby reinforcement for a behavior stops, resulting in the eventual decrease in frequency and possible eradication of that behavior.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
The manner in which parents use reinforcement and punishment directly affects children’s behavior.
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18 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
reinforcers available. The differences between posi-tive reinforcement and the use of rewards will be explained. Finally, we’ll offer suggestions for maxi-mizing the effectiveness of positive reinforcement.
Types of Positive ReinforcersReinforcers can be separated into two major cat-egories, primary and secondary. Primary or uncon-ditioned reinforcers are rewarding in themselves, without any association with other reinforcers. They include objects and activities that people naturally find valuable. Food, water, candy, and sex are ex-amples of primary reinforcers. Individuals respond positively to them naturally, without having to learn their value.
Secondary reinforcers, on the other hand, have values that are learned through association with other reinforcers. The key idea is that they must be learned. Alone they have no intrinsic value. Money perhaps is the most easily understood example. A $1,000 bill in itself is nothing but a small piece of high-quality paper with printed symbols on it. How-ever, it is associated with things of value. It can be used to purchase actual items ranging from dia-monds to pistachio nuts. Money is valuable only be-cause it is associated with other, concrete primary reinforcers.
The concepts of primary and secondary reinforc-ers can be readily applied to treatment situations. For example, a child with a developmental disabil-ity may not initially value verbal praise. He may not yet have learned to associate verbal praise with his actual behavior. A social worker may be working with the child concerning his ability to dress himself. Initially, saying, “That’s good,” may mean nothing to the child. However, saying, “That’s good,” while at the same time giving the child a small chocolate star, may eventually give the verbal praise some meaning. The child learns to associate verbal praise with the positive value of the candy. Eventually, the praise it-self becomes reinforcing to the child, even without the candy. This technique involves pairing a primary reinforcer, the chocolate star, with a secondary re-inforcer, verbal praise. The secondary reinforcer becomes valuable to the child through its initial as-sociation with the candy.
Categories of Secondary ReinforcersFour major types of secondary reinforcers will be addressed here: (1) material reinforcers and nonfood consumables, (2) activities, (3) social reinforcers, and
(4) tokens (Fischer & Gochros, 1975; Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2013; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010).
Material Reinforcers and Nonfood Consumables Material reinforcers are specific objects or sub-stances that can be used as rewards to increase spe-cific behaviors. Eight-year-old Herbie received an allowance for cleaning his room. Herbie’s cleaning behavior was strengthened or reinforced by receiving an allowance.
Money might be considered an object (a specific, tangible thing) that reinforces a behavior. Other ob-jects that might have been used as tangible reinforc-ers for Herbie include video games and toys. Each of these items would have acquired their value through learning. Therefore, they would be considered sec-ondary reinforcers.
Food has already been established as a primary reinforcer along with a number of other things that are naturally reinforcing; learning is not involved. In addition, people can learn to value some nonfood consumables. Examples include cigarettes, gum, and chewing tobacco. Although these are not naturally desired, a taste for them can be acquired. Because they are material substances, they are included in this category of secondary reinforcers.
Activities Activities make up the second category of secondary reinforcers. Activities are tangible events whose value has been learned. Positively rein-forcing activities for children might include watching rented movies, playing with friends, staying up late at night, being read to, going shopping, or visiting the stock-car races.
For example, 12-year-old Gina hates doing her homework at night. However, she loves going to the movies on Saturdays. Her parents positively re-inforce her for doing an hour’s worth of homework five nights per week by giving her money to go to the movies on Saturday. Going to the movies is an ac-tivity that serves as positive reinforcement for Gina’s doing her homework.
Premack (1965) recognized that people have hi-erarchies of preferred behavior. In other words, any individual when given a choice will choose one be-havior over another behavior. For instance, if given a choice, an individual might prefer to plant flowers in the garden over doing the laundry. The Premack Principle states that “the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence for a low-probability behavior
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 185
(a less-preferred behavior)” will “increase the low-probability behavior,” but never vice versa (Milten-berger, 2012, p. 68). Thus, more-preferred activities can be used to reinforce less-preferred activities. Consider the person who prefers garden work over laundry. Al-lowing him to plant the garden after he completes the laundry will serve to reinforce the laundry-related be-havior. He will be more likely to do the laundry if he knows he can plant the garden afterward.
We’ve established that enjoyable, exciting activi-ties can serve as secondary reinforcers if they are in-deed valued and enjoyed by the person involved. The Premack Principle implies that activities needn’t be special or extremely valued but simply preferred in order to act as a secondary reinforcer. The garden work might not be something the same individual would choose if a weekend in Las Vegas were also given as an option. However, he still would choose the garden over the laundry. Therefore, the garden could be used as a secondary reinforcer for the laun-dry. Following the same line of thinking, a trip to Las Vegas could be used as a secondary reinforcer for working in the garden or doing the laundry.
One of the implicit assumptions here is that each individual will have a different hierarchy of preferred activities. For example, on camping trips, Nick prefers the following specific activities in this or-der, from most preferred to least preferred: reading Peterson’s 4-Wheel & Off-Road magazine; cooking the food; doing the dishes; reading science fiction, especially space horror stories. Karen, on the other hand, prefers the specified camping activities in this order: reading science fiction, especially space horror stories; doing the dishes; cooking the food; reading Peterson’s 4-Wheel & Off-Road magazine (“Winch Wisdom,” the title of the leading article, doesn’t ex-cite her at all). For Karen, reading science fiction would function as a secondary reinforcer for any of the other three activities. She would be more likely to do any of them if she could read science fiction afterward. For Nick, however, the science fiction would not serve to reinforce any of the other activi-ties, whereas reading Peterson’s 4-Wheel & Off-Road magazine would.
Social Reinforcers Material reinforcers and activi-ties are not the only things that people learn to value. Various aspects of social interaction can also be considered valuable. Social reinforcers include words and gestures used to indicate caring and concern
toward another person. These can be communicated in one of two ways, by giving either verbal or physi-cal praise. Verbal praise involves words or phrases that indicate approval or appreciation of someone’s specific behavior, such as “Good job,” “You did that very well,” or “That’s terrific!”
Effective verbal praise is directed at a specific be-havior or activity. The person receiving the praise should be clearly aware of what the praise concerns. For instance, 8-year-old Linda did the dishes with-out being asked for the two days her mother was out of town attending a professional conference. Her mother, on her return home, stated, “Thank you very much for helping out and doing the dishes. I understand you did them without even being told. I really appreciate your help.” Linda’s mother made it very clear exactly what Linda did that was appre-ciated. When such praise acts to strengthen Linda’s dish-washing behavior in the future, it is positive reinforcement. If Linda’s mother instead had said, “You’re a very good girl,” it might not have been clear to Linda exactly why she was good. The posi-tive regard communicated by such a statement, of course, is valuable in itself. However, Linda might have understood her mother to mean that she was good because she didn’t cry when her mother left or because she stayed up only one half hour past her bedtime. Linda might not have understood that her mother appreciated her washing dishes, and thus might never have done so again without being told.
The second type of social reinforcement is physi-cal praise. Physical praise involves communicating appreciation or praise through physical gestures or body posture. This may simply involve a smile or a nod of the head. Hugging, clapping, or even winking can also indicate praise.
Consider, for example, how a smile might acquire significance. An infant may not initially value her mother’s smile. However, the infant may soon learn to associate the smile with comfort, warmth, and food. Eventually, the smile itself becomes reinforc-ing. It is a secondary reinforcer. The infant learns to value it. The smile is valued not because it is of value itself, but because the infant has learned to associate it with things of value.
The effects of social reinforcement are illustrated by Beverly, age 5, who had acquired a role in the kindergarten play. Her part involved playing a duck whose job was to waddle back and forth across the stage. Beverly was extremely nervous about her part
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18 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
because she was an exceptionally shy child. She even had to get a new yellow dress and wear red boots to help characterize her role. She had been practicing her waddling for days before the play. Finally, the critical night arrived. It was almost time to initiate her waddle and dare to venture out on the stage. At the last minute, she almost backed down and started crying. However, she looked out into the audience and saw her parents in the second row, looking di-rectly at her. They were both smiling proudly and nodding their heads. With such encouragement, she waddled across that stage like no one had ever waddled before. Her parents’ obvious approval and encouragement had served to positively reinforce her acting and waddling behavior. After this experience, she was much more likely to volunteer to partici-pate in activities that required performing before an audience.
Tokens Tokens provide the fourth category of sec-ondary reinforcers. Token reinforcers are designated symbolic objects reflecting specific units of value that an individual can exchange for some other com-modity that he or she wants. Tokens can include poker chips, artificial coins, points, checkmarks, or gold stars. In and of themselves, they mean nothing. However, they can be associated with something of value and eventually be exchanged for that item or activity.
A practical application of tokens is the use of a token economy in child management. For example, a new bicycle might serve as a strong positive rein-forcer for a particular child. However, it is absurd to give the child a new bicycle every time the child cleans his or her room. Rather, a system can be de-signed in which a child can earn tokens. The child can be told that if he or she earns a certain number of tokens, he or she can exchange them for a new bi-cycle. Tokens become a secondary reinforcer. A large sum of tokens can be used to acquire a new bicycle, the item of real value.
Reinforcers Versus RewardsA distinction must be made between reinforcers and rewards. A reward is not necessarily a posi-tive reinforcer. A reward is something that is given in return for a service or a particular achievement. It may or may not increase the frequency of a par-ticular behavior. A soldier might receive a medal of honor at the end of a war for shooting down 27 en-emy aircraft. This is a reward. This reward does not,
however, increase the frequency of this individual’s shooting down more aircraft during his civilian life.
Reinforcers, by definition, increase the frequency of a behavior. Receiving an A on an exam is a positive reinforcer for studying behavior if it serves to increase the frequency of a particular student’s studying in preparation for exams. However, the student may not value the grade very much. The A may not serve to motivate him to increase or maintain studying behav-ior. The student becomes bored with studying and re-ceives C and D grades on the next two exams. In this case, the A grade might be considered a reward for performance on one exam. However, the grade is not a positive reinforcer because it neither maintained nor increased the frequency of his studying.
By definition, something serves as reinforcer only if it increases behavior. A positive reinforcer needs to be valued by an individual for it to be effective. Not all items, activities, and social interactions are reinforcing to all people. A roller-coaster ride at Dis-ney World may be positively reinforcing for a third grader whose dream it is to visit Disney World. However, that same ride may not be at all reinforcing to the third grader’s father who tends to become ill on roller coasters.
Suggestions for Using Positive ReinforcementFour suggestions to enhance the use of positive re-inforcement involve the quality, the immediacy, the frequency of positive reinforcement, and the use of small steps for shaping behavior.
Quality of Positive Reinforcement In order to be considered reinforcement, an item or event must actually increase the frequency of some behavior. We’ve already established that what is reinforcing for one person may not be reinforcing for another.
A more subtle issue, however, involves the vary-ing degrees of reinforcement value of any particular reinforcer. A particular positive reinforcer might be more reinforcing in one form than in another.
A high school senior working as a part-time jani-tor at a small inner-tube factory provides an exam-ple. The young man, Jorge, is working to save for a down payment on a car. The idea of owning a car is very reinforcing to him. Because of the tremendous costs involved in purchasing a car, Jorge had decided to be satisfied with almost anything that he could reasonably afford. However, when he found a 2005 tomato-red Mustang with black racing trim for sale, his working behavior sharply increased. He asked
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 187
if he could double his working hours. To Jorge, the Mustang served as a much stronger positive rein-forcer than an older, beat-up van.
Immediacy of Positive Reinforcement Positive rein-forcement has a greater effect on behavior if it is ad-ministered immediately or shortly after the behavior occurs (Miltenberger, 2012; Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). It’s important that the behavior and the posi-tive reinforcement occur very close to each other in time. Positive reinforcement loses its effect if it is delayed too long. For example, one morning a 5-year-old boy brushes his teeth without being told. Praising him for this behavior immediately after he’s finished or even while he’s brushing will have a much greater effect on whether he brushes his teeth again on his own than if he’s praised when he gets into bed at night. By bedtime, it becomes more difficult for him to associate the praise with the specific teeth-brushing behavior.
Frequency of Positive Reinforcement The most effective way to increase a particular behavior is to reinforce it every time it occurs. This is referred to as continuous reinforcement. For example, Kaitlyn, age 12, is supposed to do her math homework every night. If Kaitlyn’s teacher collects the assignments every morning and gives Kaitlyn credit for doing them, Kaitlyn is likely to complete her homework ev-ery night. However, if Kaitlyn’s teacher collects only the Thursday night homework, Kaitlyn is less likely to do her homework every night.
Continuous reinforcement is the most effective in establishing a particular behavior. However, if the positive reinforcement stops for some reason, the behavior is likely to extinguish rapidly. For example, Kaitlyn’s teacher collects her homework every morn-ing for two months. Suddenly, the teacher decides that it’s no longer necessary to collect the home-work. As a result, there is a fairly strong likelihood that Kaitlyn will stop doing her homework if she no longer gets credit for it.
An alternative to continuous reinforcement is intermittent reinforcement. In this case, a behav-ior is not reinforced every time it is performed, but is reinforced only occasionally. In the real world, continuous reinforcement is difficult to administer. It is difficult to be with a person every minute of the day in order to observe that person’s behavior. Sometimes intermittent reinforcement is a viable alternative.
Intermittent reinforcement is not as powerful in initially establishing a behavior. It may take longer to establish the behavior, and the behavior may not occur as regularly as it would under the conditions of continuous reinforcement. For example, Kaitlyn might not do her homework every night because of the chance it wouldn’t be collected the next day.
However, intermittent reinforcement is less sub-ject to extinction. That is, suppose Kaitlyn’s teacher had only occasionally collected her homework. Sud-denly, she no longer collects the homework. Kaitlyn would be more likely to continue doing the home-work after an intermittent schedule of reinforcement than after a continuous schedule. When she was accustomed to intermittent reinforcement, Kaitlyn would be more likely to continue doing her home-work on the chance that it might be collected again. If homework collection stops abruptly after con-tinuously being collected, Kaitlyn would probably think that her teacher no longer liked to collect it. As a result, Kaitlyn would probably stop doing her homework.
Each type of intermittent reinforcement dictates a different procedure for how frequently or in what or-der reinforcement should be administered (e.g., every third time or randomly). These various procedures are referred to as schedules of reinforcement.
Shaping BehaviorSometimes the behavior that’s supposed to be posi-tively reinforced never occurs. It is impossible to re-inforce a behavior that isn’t there. In such cases, a technique called shaping can be used. Shaping refers to the reinforcement of successive approximations—that is, small steps of progress made toward the final desired behavior.
For example, 7-year-old Ralph is terrified of the water. His mother thinks that it would be valuable for him to learn to swim. However, swimming behav-ior cannot be reinforced because Ralph simply re-fuses to enter a swimming pool. In this case, it might be useful to break down the specific behavior into smaller, more manageable pieces of behavior: go-ing to the beach and playing far away from the wa-ter, playing several feet away from the water, playing while sitting in an inch of water, wading, entering the water waist deep, moving arms around in the water, briefly dunking head beneath the water, and finally starting to practice beginning swimming strokes. At each step, Ralph could be positively reinforced
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18 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
with praise, attention, or toys for participating in that step. Eventually, his behavior could be shaped so that he would participate in behavior resembling swimming. Specific swimming techniques could then be initiated and reinforced.
The Use of PunishmentPunishment is frequently and often unwillingly cho-sen as the first alternative in controlling children’s behavior. Often punishment is used in the name of discipline. Punishment involves either the applica-tion of an aversive consequence or the removal of a positive reinforcer. In either case, the result is a de-crease in the frequency of a behavior.
Potential Negative ConsequencesBefore using punishment as a means of behavioral management, it’s important to consider the po-tential negative consequences. Five of them will be mentioned here (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2013; Milten-berger, 2012; Sundel & Sundel, 2005). First, punish-ment tends to elicit a negative emotional response. The child may come to dislike the learning situation. For example, if a child is punished for spelling some words wrong in a composition, the child may no lon-ger want to write at all. The child may also have a negative reaction toward the person administering the punishment.
For example, a young woman in junior high school was walking through the crowded halls from study hall to her next class. The gruff varsity football coach grabbed her by the shoulder and shouted, “Act like a lady!” She had no idea what he was referring to. However, from that time on, she avoided both crowded hallways and that football coach whenever she could. She had developed an intense dislike for the man.
This example also illustrates the second possible negative side effect of punishment: avoidance of ei-ther the punishing person or the punitive situation. In homes where physical punishment is used freely and regularly, children may try to stay away from the home as much as possible. Lying may provide an-other effective means of avoiding punitive situations. (Children sometimes learn to lie because parents set the price for honesty too high.)
The third possible negative effect of punishment is that it can teach children to be aggressive. Another way of saying this is that a punishing agent models
aggressive behavior. Children can learn that the way to deal with frustration or with not getting their own way is to hit or scream. This can carry over to their interactions with peers, siblings, or adults. An exam-ple is an adolescent who had been labeled as having severe emotional and behavioral problems. When he was a small child, physical punishment was used fre-quently in the home. By the time he reached age 16 and had grown to be 6 feet 3 inches tall, a different problem became apparent in the home. The boy be-gan to physically assault his mother whenever they had disagreements. He had learned to be aggressive.
The fourth potential problem with using punish-ment, specifically physical punishment, is the pos-sibility of physically harming the child. A parent may lose control or not be aware of his or her real strength. Without initial intent, physical damage may result.
Finally, there is a fifth reason for questioning the use of punishment. Punishment teaches people what they should not do but gives them no indication as to what they should do. Scolding a child for being impolite when visiting Aunt Edna does not help the child know how she could have treated Aunt Edna more appropriately.
In summary, all five of these considerations in-volve losing control of the consequences of punish-ment. The outcome of punishment is unpredictable, and therefore it should be used with extreme care.
The Nature of PunishmentPunishment has several characteristics (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2013; Miltenberger, 2012). First, a decrease in the frequency of a behavior usu-ally occurs relatively soon after the punishment is presented. If the behavior doesn’t decrease almost immediately after the supposed punishment starts, there is a good possibility it never will. Thus, it is not wise to continue punishment if it doesn’t work almost immediately.
For example, 1-year-old Tyrone was crawling happily on his mother’s kitchen floor when he dis-covered the electric socket. His mother, who was watching him out of the corner of her eye, ran over to him, slapped his hand, and raised her voice in a loud, “No!” He looked at her and returned his atten-tion immediately to the socket. After this occurred four times, his mother slapped him even harder. He then started crying, and she removed him to another room. In this incident, scolding and hitting were not
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 189
effective. Instead, the mother’s attention appeared to positively reinforce Tyrone’s playing with the electric socket. Since scolding and hitting were not effective even after several attempts, it was not likely that they would ever work. Calmly diverting Tyrone’s atten-tion might have been a more effective approach to controlling Tyrone’s behavior.
Another characteristic of punishment is that its effects, although often immediate, frequently do not last very long. Relatively soon after receiving pun-ishment, a person often reverts to the old behavior. For example, a driver may receive a speeding ticket for driving 87 mph on a 55-mph expressway. For a while he takes care to drive within the speed limit. However, he soon finds it too restrictive and time consuming to drive so slowly. His speeds gradually creep up to the old levels of 85 to 90 mph.
A third characteristic of punishment is that its ef-fects are frequently limited to the conditions under which the punishment occurred. In other words, punishment tends to work only in the specific situa-tion in which it occurred or only with the particular person who administered the punishment. For exam-ple, Trudy, age 7, likes to spit at people as they pass by her on the sidewalk. Her mother spanks her when she sees this behavior. Therefore, Trudy never spits in front of her mother. However, when her mother is in the house or at the grocery store, or when Trudy is at the babysitter’s, she continues to spit at passersby. The babysitter has spanked her twice, but it hasn’t changed Trudy’s behavior. Spanking functioned as punishment for Trudy only when her mother was present and only when her mother administered it.
The Effectiveness of PunishmentMiltenberger (2012) comments that “authority fig-ures such as governments, police, churches, or par-ents impose punishment to inhibit inappropriate behavior—that is, to keep people from breaking laws or rules. Punishment may involve prison time, the electric chair, fines, the threat of going to hell, spank-ing, or scolding. However, the everyday meaning of punishment is very different from the technical defi-nition of punishment used in behavior modification” (p. 104).
Sundel and Sundel (2005) reflect:
Despite the disadvantages of punishment and t h e s t r i n ge n t re q u i re m e n t s fo r e n s u r i n g i t s effectiveness, punishment is still commonly used as a behavioral control technique. One reason for this
is that punishment usually works immediately to suppress undesired behavior. Therefore, the short-term consequences are reinforcing for the individual who administers the punishment. For example, Mel spanked his daughter Terri when she complained a b o u t e a t i n g h e r ve ge t a bl e s. Te r r i s t o p p e d complaining; thus, her father was reinforced for spanking her. (p. 133)
This everyday scenario focuses on the immediate, short-term effects of punishment, not on long-term effects or consequences other than the immediate cessation of the targeted behavior. Kazdin (2008a) discusses the use of punishment as a means of be-havior modification:
There has been extensive debate within the profession regarding the use of aversive events . . . Many of the discussions have focused on self-injurious (e.g., head banging, face slapping) and aggressive behavior (e.g., fighting). Behaviors that are dangerous warrant immediate attention and require complete elimination if at all possible. Early in the development of behavior modification, electric shock was used (brief, mild, and delivered on few occasions) and was shown to be effective in eliminating self-injurious behavior. This was significant because in a number of instances, the behavior was long-standing and had not responded to other treatments. Over the past several years, significant advances have been made in devising alternative procedures to reduce and eliminate dangerous behaviors. (p. 415)
In summary, punishment may be effective when used to curb extremely self-destructive or aggres-sive behavior in cases in which other treatment ap-proaches have failed. The problematic behavior’s dynamics should be carefully assessed to determine the appropriateness and potential effectiveness of punishment. Serious thought should go into the method of punishment to be used. It should be the least severe possible to be effective. The well-being of the person experiencing the behavioral program should always be of paramount importance. Finally, the potential side effects of punishment, mentioned earlier, should be cautiously considered.
Suggestions for Using PunishmentWhen the decision is made to use punishment, fol-low three suggestions for maximizing its effectiveness (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a; Miltenberger, 2012; Spiegler
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19 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
& Guevremont, 2010; Sundel & Sundel, 2005). First, intervention should occur early; that is, punishment should be administered as soon as possible after the behavior that is to be punished occurs.
For example, 10-year-old Santiago had been steal-ing DVDs for about six months. One afternoon, he de-cided to shoplift a DVD from Wal-Mart. Although he made it out to the parking lot, his friend, Maynard, was not so lucky. A huge male clerk grabbed Maynard by the wrist as he was hoisting a DVD under his T-shirt. Santiago, although feeling very bad that his friend got caught, also felt relieved that he himself did not.
Two weeks later Santiago’s father received a phone call from the police. Apparently under duress and with the promise of a lesser punishment, Maynard had relented and given the police Santiago’s name. Santiago’s punishment was being grounded for the next month. Being grounded involved reporting in by 8:00 p.m. every night including weekends. Although Santiago was not particularly happy about his situa-tion, he was more unhappy about being caught than about stealing a DVD. He interpreted his punish-ment to mean “Don’t get caught.” The punishment had virtually no effect on his DVD-stealing behav-ior. He continued to steal DVDs, but did so with exceptional care. In this situation, because the pun-ishment was not administered soon after the stealing behavior occurred, it had little effect.
A second suggestion for using punishment is to administer the punishing consequences every time the behavior occurs. In Santiago’s situation, he was punished only once. Many other times his steal-ing behavior was positively reinforced by his get-ting and enjoying the DVDs he wanted. Receiving a punishment every time a behavior occurs helps to strengthen the idea that the consequence of that par-ticular behavior is unappealing.
The third suggestion concerning the use of pun-ishment is the most important. At the same time that punishment is used, a complementary program should be used to reinforce other, more appropriate behaviors. Punishment has been found to be most effective when an individual is being reinforced for adopting more appropriate behaviors at the same time. For example, a therapeutic goal for a child with profound intellectual disabilities was to walk instead of crawl (O’Brien, Azrin, & Bugle, 1974). Punish-ment for crawling involved restraining him from movement for five seconds. However, this did not re-ally serve as punishment because the child’s crawling
behavior didn’t decrease. Nor did his walking behav-ior increase. Eventually, a new approach was tried. While the child was being restrained from crawl-ing, he was also encouraged or positively reinforced for moving his body. This included being helped to walk. As a result, his walking behavior increased, and his crawling behavior decreased. In this case, punishment was effective when the child was rein-forced for a more appropriate behavior at the same time. It has been found that the negative side effects of punishment, such as resentment toward the pu-nitive person, aggressive behavior, and avoidance of the punitive situation, are not nearly as great when reinforcement for alternative appropriate behaviors is used (Carey & Bucher, 1986).
Additionally, Patterson (1975) makes a fourth sug-gestion for using punishment: Remain calm while administering it. Excessive attention directed at a par-ticular behavior may serve as a positive reinforcer for that behavior rather than as a punishment. For exam-ple, 18-month-old Petey discovered a book of matches lying on the coffee table. He immediately sat down and started to play with them. His mother saw him, ran over to him, and spanked him. She also took away the matches. Because both of Petey’s parents smoked, it was fairly likely that Petey would find more match-books lying around the house. In fact, he found some the next day. His mother responded in a similar man-ner. Petey learned that he could get attention from his mother by playing with matches. As a result, he loved to find matches and play with them. Although his mother’s attention was negative, it was forceful enough to serve as positive reinforcement. Petey con-tinued to play with matches every chance he got.
Ethical Questions 4.2
EP 1
What are your thoughts about punishing children? What was your experience with punishment as a child? If punishment was used, in what ways were you punished? Did punishment work or not? Why?
Additional IssuesIn addition to the focus on positive reinforcement and punishment, three additional issues merit
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 191
attention here. They concern common elements en-countered in practice. The additional issues include accidental training, the use of behaviorally specific terminology, measuring improvement, and the im-portance of parental attention.
Accidental TrainingThus far, the discussion has emphasized planned be-havioral change. However, many times reinforcement and punishment affect behavior without conscious planning. Behavior can be increased or decreased without intention. When attempting to understand the dynamics of behavior, it’s important to under-stand that accidental training does occur.
Negative attention is frequently an effective means of providing accidental training. Attention, even in the form of yelling, can function as posi-tive reinforcement. Even though it is supposed to be negative, the social reinforcement value can be so strong that the behavior will be strengthened instead of weakened. For example, if Ethan’s mother yells at him for picking her favorite peonies, then Ethan may learn that picking those peonies will make his mother yell. If Ethan continues to pick the peonies and his mother continues to yell at him for it, the yelling has served to reinforce his peony-picking be-havior. Highlight 4.2 provides another example of accidental training.
Behaviorally Specific TerminologyA major advantage of conceptualizing behavior in terms of learning theory is the emphasis on speci-ficity. A behavior must be clearly and concisely de-fined. A clear description of behavior allows for all involved in the behavioral management of a child to understand exactly what behavior, including prob-lem behavior, involves.
For example, Jessica, age 9, was described by her teachers as too passive. It is difficult to know what is meant by “too passive.” The word passive is relatively abstract. The image of a passive Jessica is quite vague. However, if Jessica’s passivism is defined in terms of her behavior, as it would be with a learning theory conceptualization, the image of Jessica becomes more distinct. Jessica’s passiv-ism might be described behaviorally in the follow-ing way:
Jessica sits quietly by herself during classes and recesses at school. She avoids social contact with peers during recess by walking to the far side of the playground away from the other children. She does not volunteer information during class. When asked a question, she typically shrugs her shoulders as if she does not know the answer. She then avoids eye contact and looks down toward the ground. She is consistently standing last in lines for
HIGHLIGHT 4.2
accidental trainingTommy was an only child. His parents, who were in their late 30s, had tried to have children for years without success. When Tommy came along, they were overjoyed. Both parents thought almost everything Tommy did was “simply darling.” One time, when Tommy was 3 years old, he approached some dinner guests and asked for money. He had learned that money bought ice cream and other good things. Two things occurred. First, his parents thought it was cute, so they laughed. Then they appropriately told him that asking for money was not a good thing to do. But they maintained happy, smiling faces all the while. Tommy thus received massive social reinforcement in the form of praise and attention for his begging behavior. Second, Tommy did receive $2, which he later spent for mocha fudge ice cream. The guests were not quite as entertained by Tommy’s behavior as his parents were. But they felt he was a
cute kid and gave him money to avoid embarrassment in front of his parents.
The next time Tommy’s parents had guests, Tommy did the same thing. He came out for display, said hello, and then asked them if he could have some money. He received a similar reaction. As time went on, Tommy consistently continued his begging behavior in front of guests. His parents became less entertained as the years passed. They discovered that an 8-year-old Tommy coming out and asking guests for money was no longer as cute as a 3-year-old doing the same thing. However, by the time Tommy was 8, they were having a terrible time trying to decrease or extinguish his begging behavior. For an extended period of time, Tommy had accidentally been trained to beg. Such extensive accidental training had become very difficult to extinguish.
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19 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
lunch, for recess, or for returning to school. When other children push her out of their way, she allows herself to be pushed without comment.
Learning theory mandates clear behavioral de-scriptions in order to conceptualize any particular behavior. The antecedents, the behavior itself, and the consequences of the behavior must be clearly de-fined in order to make changes in the behavior. The behavioral description of Jessica provides a much clearer picture than merely labeling Jessica as being “too passive.”
Measuring ImprovementObservation of behavior becomes much easier when it has been specifically described. Subsequently, im-provements in behavior become more clearly discern-able. For example, it might be difficult to establish if Jessica is becoming less passive. However, it is much easier to determine the number of times Jessica as-sertively raises her hand to answer a question in class.
Behavior must be observable in order to measure if it has improved. In other words, it must be clear when the behavior occurs and when it does not. In Jessica’s situation, the frequency of hand-raising in class has been targeted as a behavior that involves passivism. If Jessica never raises her hand to answer a question, she will be considered passive. If she raises her hand frequently, on the other hand, she will not be considered passive.
For the sake of this illustration, hand-raising is used as a means to measure passivism. Clearly stated behaviors can be counted. For example, in Jessica’s case, each time she raises her hand above shoulder level after her teacher has asked the class a question could count as one hand-raising behavior. In an ac-tual situation, Jessica’s other behaviors could also be used. These might include behaviors such as the amount of time she spends talking to peers or the number of times she answers her teacher’s questions. Her improvement might be measured by using a summation of several measures.
The first step, then, is targeting a behavior to change. The next step is determining how severe the problem is in the first place. This must be known in order to tell when improvements have been made. In Jessica’s case, the hand-raising must be counted and a baseline established. A baseline is the frequency with which a behavior occurs before behavior modi-fication begins. After a baseline is established, it is easy to determine when a change in the frequency of
the behavior has occurred. The change is the differ-ence between how frequently that behavior occurred at the baseline and how frequently the behavior oc-curs after the behavior modification program has begun.
For example, during the first month of school, Jessica raises her hand to answer a question zero times per school day. However, by the seventh month of school, she raises her hand to answer a question an average of six times per day. If one of the means of measuring passivism is the number of times Jes-sica raises her hand in class, then Jessica can eas-ily be described as less passive during the seventh month of school than during the first.
The final point concerning behavioral specificity involves how the behaviors are counted in the first place—who keeps track of the frequency of the be-havior and how this is done. Behavior checklists and charts can be developed for this purpose. A behav-ior checklist simply allows for a place to make note of when a behavior occurs. For example, a two-di-mensional chart might have each day of the week listed on the horizontal axis. Each day might be bro-ken down into individual hours on the vertical axis on the left-hand side. Table 4.1 illustrates how this might be applied to Jessica’s situation.
Whenever Jessica raised her hand in class, her teacher would make a note of it on her behav-ior checklist. The total number of times could be counted. It could thus be clearly established if an im-provement occurred.
We have not addressed the specific types of treat-ment that could be used to decrease Jessica’s passiv-ism. A treatment program could be established in various ways. For example, positive reinforcement could be administered whenever she raises her hand. This could take the form of verbal praise, a piece of candy, or a token that could be used to buy some-thing she really wanted.
The Importance of Parental AttentionOne of the criticisms of the application of learning theory has been that it is a rigid and somewhat cold dissection of human behavior. Warmth, caring, and human concern are not readily evident. This cer-tainly does not have to be the case. The importance of parents’ communicating with their children and genuinely showing spontaneous concern for them should not be overlooked. Learning theory provides a framework for analyzing and gaining control over
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 19 3
behavior. Other important aspects of human re-lationships can occur concurrently with programs based on learning theory.
For example, active listening is often emphasized in suggestions for effective parenting (Ivey, Ivey, & Zalaquett, 2012, 2014). Active listening is the process in which the receiver of a communication pays close attention to what the sender of the communication is saying, and subsequently reflects back what was heard to make sure the “message has been accurately understood” (Sheafor & Horejsi, 2006, p. 148). A parent and a child often have different ways of say-ing things. Each has a different perspective. Active listening encourages a parent to stop for a moment and consciously examine what the child is say-ing. The idea is for the parent to look at the issue from the child’s perspective. This may not be clear from the particular words the child has spoken. The parent then is urged to reflect these feelings back to the child. The end result of a parent’s taking the time to understand a child should be an enhancement of the warmth and caring between them.
Charlene and her mother provide an example of active listening. Charlene, age 7, comes home after school, crying. She says to her mother, “Betty invited everybody but me to her birthday party.” Instead of passing it off as a simple childhood disappointment, Charlene’s mother stops for a moment and thinks about what this incident might mean to Charlene. She replies to Charlene, “You really feel left out and bad about this, don’t you?” Charlene comes into her mother’s arms and replies, “I sure do, Mom.” In this instance, her mother simply reflected to Charlene her empathy and concern. As a result, Charlene felt that her mother really understood. Warmth and feel-ing were apparent in their interchange.
Although this interaction is not structured within learning theory terms, it certainly illustrates the ba-sic components of warmth and empathy necessary in the parent–child relationship. Feelings and com-munication are ongoing, dynamic parts of that rela-tionship. They occur simultaneously along with the ongoing management of children’s behavior.
A Specific Treatment Situation: Time-Out from ReinforcementExtensive volumes have been written about the vari-ous aspects of learning theory and its applications. Specific concepts have already been discussed. We have selected a specific treatment situation to illus-trate the application of these concepts using specific techniques. It focuses on concepts frequently used by social work practitioners. The treatment situation presented here involves the use of a time-out from reinforcement procedure.
The term time-out refers to a time-out from re-inforcement. In this procedure, previous reinforce-ment is withdrawn, with the intended result being a decrease in the frequency of a particular behavior. Kazdin (2008a) explains why time-outs are a form of punishment instead of extinction:
The defining feature of time-out is based on a period of time and the unavailability of reinforcement during that time period. Of course, time-out is also a punishment procedure. Something is withdrawn (availability of reinforcers) contingent on behavior. Extinction is not a punishment procedure. In extinction, a response that has been reinforced (e.g., praise for smiling) is no longer reinforced. The key feature of extinction is that a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced. There is no time
TABLE 4.1
MON. TUES. WED. THURS. FRI.
8:00–8:59 am 0 0 0 0 0
9:00–9:59 am 0 0 0 0 0
10:00–10:59 am 0 0 0 0 0
11:00–11:59 am 0 0 0 0 0
12:00–12:59 am 0 0 0 0 1
1:00–1:59 pm 0 1 1 0 1
2:00–3:00 pm 0 0 1 3 3
BEHAVIOR CHART: NUMBER OF TIMES JESSICA RAISES HER HAND
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194 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
interval or period involved in extinction. When the response occurs, no consequence follows. In contrast, during time-out, when a response to be suppressed occurs, a period is invoked in which no reinforcers can be provided for any behavior. (pp. 210–211)
Instead of applying some aversive consequences such as a spanking after a behavior occurs, a child is simply removed from the reinforcing circumstances. If a child gets no attention or positive reinforce-ment for a behavior, that behavior will eventually diminish.
For example, 4-year-old Vernite loves to play with her Legos®. However, Vernite has difficulty sharing them with other children. When another child picks up one of the pieces, Vernite will typically run over to that child, pinch him, take the toy, and place it in a pile with the rest of her own Legos®. As a result, other children don’t like Vernite very much.
The goal here might be to decrease Vernite’s self-ish behavior. Selfish behavior is defined as the series of behaviors involved in pinching and taking toys away from other children. A time-out from rein-forcement procedure can be used to control Vernite’s selfish behavior. Whenever Vernite pinches another child or takes a Lego away from that child, her mother immediately picks her up and puts her in a corner behind a screen for three minutes. At the end of that time, her mother picks up Vernite again and puts her back in the play situation. What happens from Vernite’s perspective is that the positively re-inforcing situation filled with fun, Legos, and other children is removed. (In actuality, of course, it is Vernite who is removed.) Without receiving the re-inforcement of having the toys for herself, Vernite’s selfish behavior should eventually disappear. She should learn that such behavior is inappropriate and, in effect, not worth its consequences. Vernite’s selfish behavior should eventually be extinguished.
Improving the Effectiveness of Time-OutsSeveral aspects of time-outs tend to improve their ef-fectiveness. The following are suggestions for using time-outs:
1. A time-out should be applied immediately after the targeted behavior occurs in order for it to be effective.
2. Time-outs should be applied consistently. A time-out should occur as a consequence every time the targeted behavior occurs.
3. Time-outs should usually extend from 1 to 10 minutes (Miltenberger, 2012). Such short pe-riods of time have been shown to be effective (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2013; Sundel & Sundel, 2005). “However, if the client is engag-ing in problem behaviors in the timeout area at the end of the time-out period, time-out is ex-tended for a brief time (typically 10 seconds to 1 minute) until the client is no longer engaging in problem behaviors” (Miltenberger, 2012, p. 347). Extending time-outs for longer periods of time does not increase the effectiveness of the time-out (Kazdin, 2001, 2008a, 2008b, 2013). The relation-ship between the targeted behavior and the time-out becomes too distant. An extended time-out of an hour, for instance, may also take on some of the potential negative consequences of a more severe form of punishment such as resentment to-ward the person administering the time-out.
4. The time-out should take place in a very bor-ing place. An ideal time-out should provide ab-solutely no positive reinforcement. It might take place in a chair facing a corner or in a room de-void of stimulating objects and pictures. If the time-out location is exciting or stimulating, it may positively reinforce a negative target behav-ior rather than extinguish it.
5. The person, frequently a parent, who is adminis-tering the time-out should be careful not to give the child positive reinforcement in the form of attention while the time-out is taking place. A parent might simply state to the child, “Timeout.” The child should then be removed to the time-out location with as little show of emotion as possi-ble. No debate should take place.
6. A child should be told ahead of time exactly which behaviors will result in a time-out. The length of the time-out should also be specified. The intent is to help the child understand exactly what he or she is doing wrong and what the re-sulting consequences will be.
7. If the child refuses to go to the time-out loca-tion, he or she may have to be physically taken there. This should be done with as little show of emotion as possible. The child should be gently restrained from all activity until the time-out can begin.
8. The most important thing to remember about using the time-out procedure is that positive re-inforcement should be used to reinforce more
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 195
appropriate replacement behaviors for the same situation. Appropriate behavior should be praised as soon as it occurs after the time-out has taken place. For example, when Vernite is returned to the play scene, she should be praised for playing with her own toys and not taking them away from other children. Her mother might simply say, “Look how well you’re playing and sharing now, Vernite. Good girl.”
A simple anecdote taking place in a supermarket illustrates the ingenuity and creativity with which a time-out might be used. A mother was shopping, with her 2-year-old sitting in a shopping cart. Sud-denly for no apparent reason the child began to scream. Much to the surprise of onlooking shop-pers, the mother calmly removed her raincoat and placed it over the child’s head for 20 seconds. People who are unfamiliar with the time-out technique may have thought she was trying to suffocate the child. However, she performed the procedure calmly and gently. When she removed the raincoat, there sat a peaceful and quiet child. The mother had no further problems with screaming behavior in the supermar-ket that day. What this mother did was to remove the child from all positive reinforcement for a brief period of time. The child learned that screaming led to no positive consequences. Thus, the screaming stopped.
Ethical Questions 4.3
EP 1
What are your thoughts about using time-outs in child management? To what extent, if any, do you think they work? If they should be used, under what circumstances are they appropriate? Should any caregiver (e.g., day-care providers, teachers, and babysitters) be allowed to administer them, or should parents be the only ones to do so? What are the reasons for your answers?
GroundingOne other thing should be noted regarding the use of time-outs. Frequently, parents use grounding or
sending children to their rooms to curb children’s behavior. Although superficially these techniques might resemble time-outs, they don’t seem to be very effective. Perhaps too many positive reinforcers are available in a child’s room. Often this form of time-out is administered long after the actual behavior oc-curs. The actual time of restriction is certainly longer than the recommended time period of a maximum of several minutes.
Ethical Questions 4.4
EP 1
To what extent, if any, do you think grounding works? What were your experiences with grounding if you had any? What were the results? Would you consider grounding as a means of disciplining your own children? Why?
LO 8 Examine Common Life Events That Affect ChildrenSome basic aspects of family functioning have al-ready been examined. These included a concep-tualization of family systems and an examination of learning theory applied to parenting situations. Several other social aspects of childhood merit at-tention. Common events or situations involving the family that frequently affect the lives of children are discussed here. These include membership in sibling subsystems and gender-role socialization. Ethnic and cultural differences in families, the social aspects of play with peers, the influence of television, and the school environment are also examined. The inci-dence and dynamics of physical abuse, neglect, emo-tional maltreatment, and sexual abuse of children are explored. Finally, the treatment of child abuse and neglect is explained.
Membership in Family SystemsThe family environment is of crucial importance to a child. Even though as children grow they become more and more involved with their peers, the fam-ily itself remains very important (McGoldrick et al.,
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196 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
2011). A good family environment provides nurtur-ance, support, guidance, and a safe, secure place to which children can turn.
Baumrind conducted an interesting series of studies to evaluate how parents actually go about their business of parenting (Baumrind, 1971, 1978, 1991a, 1991b, 1993, 1996; Lamanna & Riedmann, 2009; Rathus, 2014b). Three basic styles of parent-ing emerged. First, permissive parents are very non-directive and avoid trying to control their children. Permissive parents may be either overly indulgent or rejecting-neglecting. “Permissive-indulgent parents . . . are easygoing and unconventional. Their brand of permissiveness is accompanied by high nurturance (warmth and responsiveness)”; permissive rejecting-neglecting parents shun or ignore their children, thereby leaving children to fend for themselves (Rathus, 2014b, p. 316). Such parents show little if any affection and responsiveness.
The second parenting style is authoritarian. Par-ents adopting this style have definite ideas about how children should behave. These parents do not hesitate to make rules and tell their children what to do. They emphasize control and conformity.
The third parenting style is authoritative. Parents using this style are neither permissive nor authori-tarian, but somewhere in the middle. On the one hand, they provide control and consistent support. On the other hand, they involve their children in de-cision making and encourage the development of independence.
Which parenting style is the most effective? There is some support that an authoritative approach to parenting is preferable (Lamanna & Riedmann, 2009). Dacey and Travers (2006) describe this style: “Authoritative parents are high on control (they have definite standards for their children), high on clarity of communication (the children clearly understand what is expected of them), high in maturity demands (they want their children to behave in a way appro-priate for their age), and high in nurturance (a warm, loving relationship exists between parents and chil-dren)” (pp. 206–207).
Rathus (2013) reflects that the research suggests that it’s best for parents to avoid either of the more extreme permissive or authoritarian styles in their parenting approach. He suggests using a number of effective techniques that coincide with the applica-tion of learning-theory principles. Effective parents should
● “Reward good behavior with praise, smiles, and hugs.
● Give clear, simple, realistic rules appropriate to the child’s age.
● Enforce rules with reasonable consequences. ● Ignore annoying behavior such as whining and
tantrums. . . ● Be consistent.” (Rathus, 2013, p. 231)
Ethical Questions 4.5
EP 1
What type of parenting style do you think is best, and why? What style did your parents use? To what extent was it effective, and why?
One potential problem with the conclusion that an authoritative style is best is that it may not clearly reflect the values and effective child-rearing practices evident in other cultures. Spotlight 4.2 addresses the importance of cultural context in the assessment of the effectiveness of parenting style. Spotlight 4.3 ex-plores ethnic and cultural differences in families.
A variety of other issues involving children and families will be discussed in Chapter 12. These in-clude single-parent families, families of divorce, blended families, mothers working outside the home, family communication, family interaction, and com-mon problems facing families.
Membership in Sibling SubsystemsSiblings compose a child’s most intimate and imme-diate peer group. Brothers and sisters will affect the development and behavior of a child. Siblings learn how to play with each other. They act as models for each other. They also learn how to fight with each other.
The Coming of a New BabyPicture a 3½-year-old girl waiting patiently for her mother to come home from the hospital with her new baby sister. When Mom arrives, imagine her surprise when she sees her beloved mother holding a blanket that looks like it has a tiny doll in it. Her mother is smiling and cooing down at the “doll.” The little girl thinks to herself, “That must be my
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 19 7
baby sister.” She feels surprise, wonderment, happi-ness, and worry all at once, but is unable to articulate these feelings. Her general impression of the whole new situation is, “Now what?”
The coming of a new baby changes a child’s fam-ily environment. Children’s reactions to the change in circumstances vary dramatically. Some may with-draw into themselves and regress to more babylike behavior. Others may show open hostility toward the
new baby and suggest giving it back. One 3-year-old boy was found holding a safety pin near his new in-fant brother, contemplating poking him in the eye. Still other children happily and proudly accept the family’s new addition and enjoy holding and playing with the baby.
Because of the complexity of the issue and the lack of clear-cut research, it is difficult to propose how to make the transition as easy as possible. Dr. Benjamin
cultural context and parenting StyleVarious ethnic groups have markedly different parenting styles that don’t fit neatly into the permissive/authoritarian/authoritative classification system. Specific variations involve how parents perceive and demonstrate caring and control. For example, Chinese American parents are generally viewed as more demanding concerning control of their children’s
behavior (Berk 2012a; Papalia & Martorell, 2015). For one thing, “most Chinese parents strictly control their children’s aggressive behavior” and demand “that their children display no aggressive behavior under any circumstances” (Ou & McAdoo, 1999, p. 255). The Baumrind system emphasizes control as characterizing an authoritarian parenting style. However, this approach suggests a somewhat different intent and purpose than that of the Western authoritarian parenting style. “High control [in Chinese culture] reflects the Confucian belief in strict discipline, respect for elders, and socially desirable behavior, taught by deeply involved parents” (Berk, 2013, p. 582). Chinese tradition emphasizes that a “child, no matter how old, should remain emotionally and financially attached to the parents,” and there are “strong indications of a lack of independence training in child rearing” (Lin & Liu, 1999, p. 238). The Chinese view control of children as a means to teach “obedience and cooperation,” the “values most emphasized.” . . . “Frequent receiving and giving of help between generations is seen by Chinese as an indication of family solidarity. Most children are expected to turn their earnings over to their parents to be used for general family needs” (p. 238).
So what Western eyes might view as an authoritarian trait is really a demonstration of warmth, support, and caring from the Chinese perspective. These latter values more closely characterize authoritative parents in Baumrind’s classification system, but without stressing the American values of rugged individualism and free choice (Papalia & Martorell, 2015) Berk (2013) reflects:
In Hispanic, Asian Pacific Island families, and Caribbean families of African and East Indian origin, firm insistence on respect for parental authority is paired with high parental warmth—a combination suited to promoting competence and strong feelings of family loyalty (Harrison, Wilson, Pine, Chan, & Buriel, 1994; Roopnarine & Evans, 2007). In one study, Mexican-American mothers living in poverty who adhered strongly to their cultural traditions tended to combine warmth with strict, even somewhat harsh, control—a style that served a protective function, in that it was associated with reduced child and adolescent conduct problems (Hill, Bush, & Roosa, 2003). Although at one time viewed as coercive, contemporary Hispanic fathers typically spend much time with their children and are warm and sensitive (Garcia Coll & Pachter, 2002; Jambunathan, Burts, & Pierce, 2000). In Caribbean families that have immigrated to the United States, fathers’ authoritativeness—but not mothers’—predicted preschoolers’ literacy and math skills, probably because Caribbean fathers take a larger role in guiding their children’s academic progress (Roopnarine, Krishnakumar, Metindogan, & Evans, 2006).” (p. 582)
African American mothers also tend to require immediate and rigorous compliance with their directions (Berk, 2012a). Their approach, however, combines caring and affection with strict discipline and rarely involves physical punishment. This no-nonsense tactic is viewed as a means of helping children regulate their behavior and keep themselves safe even when in a treacherous environment; children view such parental control as a means of caring for their welfare (Brody & Flor, 1998).
In summary, it is important to recognize the cultural context of child rearing, parental expectations, and social responsibilities before stating unilaterally that one parenting style is “best.” Learning from clients about their culture and cultural expectations concerning parenting style is a career-long process.
EP 2aEP 2c
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.2
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19 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 9 Recognize ethnic and cultural Differences in families: empowerment through appreciation of Strengths
The father’s role in the family, the availability a n d n at u re o f s u p p o r t s y s t e m s, a n d perspectives on disciplining children vary greatly among cultures (Santrock, 2016). Despite these variations, research on 186 cultures throughout the world revealed a pattern of successful parenting (Santrock, 2008; Whiting & Edwards, 1988). The variables that emerged are consistency in the
form of supportive control and genuine caring for children.When assessing the dynamics of families from various
cultures, three factors are important. First, cultural variations involving expectations and values reflect each culture. Second, people of different cultures living in the United States and Canada experience varying degrees of assimilation into the majority culture simply by living there. Third, people not of European origin frequently experience discrimination and oppression because of their differences.
Two other perspectives are helpful when thinking about multicultural diversity in families: cultural pluralism and internal variations or subgroups within a culture. In conceptualizing a multicultural nation, it is helpful to think in terms of cultural pluralism instead of a melting pot. A melting pot implies that all people blend together into one uniform whole. Cheese fondue comes to mind, where the cheese and other ingredients blend together in one bubbling mass. This is not really the case with a multicultural society. Rather, people from different cultures come together, and each cultural group retains its own rich spirit and customs. This is cultural pluralism. One of those huge lollipops made up of multicolored swirls comes to mind. It is one mammoth
piece of candy, yet it is made up of distinct swirls of brilliant blue, red, yellow, orange, pink, and green blending together to various degrees.
Still another perspective useful in understanding cultural diversity involves respecting and appreciating the differences within large groups. For example, among Native Americans, there are far more than 500 specific groups (Weaver, 2008).
Social workers should strive to learn from clients about their diverse cultures. To be effective, this is a career-long process. Here we discuss some of the values, beliefs, and perspectives assumed by three cultural groups in American society: Hispanics, Native Americans, and Asian Americans.
Hispanic FamiliesChapter 1 established that the terms Hispanic and Latino have generally been used to refer to people originating in countries where Spanish is spoken. However, we also noted that the terms in reality refer to people originating in a number of places. No one term is acceptable to all the groups of Spanish-speaking people.
The U.S. Census Bureau collects information by having people identify themselves as being Hispanic or not.
People who identify with the terms “Hispanic” or “Latino” are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the decennial census questionnaire and the various Census Bureau survey questionnaires-”Mexican, Mexican Am. Chicano” or “Puerto Rican” or “Cuban”-as well as those who indicate that they are “another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish Origin”. . .Persons with other Hispanic origins (e.g., Salvadoran, Nicaraguan, Argentinean) were able to write in their specific origin group. The Census Bureau’s code list contains over 30 Hispanic or Latino Subgroups (2013).
According to the census, of those classifying themselves as Hispanic, 65.4 percent are of Mexican heritage, 8.9 percent Puerto Rican, 3.5 percent Cuban, and 16 percent Central or South American (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). However, for any particular family, Goldenberg and Goldenberg (1998) caution: “Socioeconomic, regional, and demographic characteristics vary among Hispanic American groups, making cultural generalizations risky. Within groups, the counselor needs to be alert to the client’s generation level, acculturation level, languages spoken, educational background, socioeconomic status, rural or urban residence, adherence to cultural values, and religiosity/spirituality” (p. 307).
Keeping in mind that specific variations exist within the many subgroups, we will discuss some cultural themes
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.3
EP 2aEP 2c
Hispanic nuclear and extended family members celebrate a child’s birthday.
Mar
k Bu
rnet
t/A
lam
y St
ock
Phot
o
(continued)
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 19 9
important to Hispanic families in general. These include the significance of a common language, the importance of family relationships including extended family, and the traditional strictness of gender roles.
The first theme important in understanding the environment for children growing up in Hispanic families is the significance of a common language (Delgado-Romero, Nevels, & Capielo, 2013; Furman, Negi, & Loya, 2010). Everyday communication among Hispanic people is frequently in English. Almost 60 percent of Latinos speak only English, or at least speak it fluently, and almost 80 percent speak Spanish fluently; the uniting symbolic importance of the Spanish language should not be disregarded (Longres & Aisenberg, 2008). So many cultural activities and aspects of pride are associated with Spanish. Consider the cultural events and holidays (e.g., Cinco de Mayo for Mexican Americans, which celebrates the glorious day a small Mexican army defeated a French army battalion). Other cultural aspects may be celebrated and promoted, such as community murals reflecting important aspects of culture, art, or history, and traditional foods associated with a Hispanic heritage (Delgado, 2007).
A second theme involves the importance of both nuclear and extended family relationships (Diller, 2015; Longres & Aisenberg, 2008; Magana & Ybarra, 2010). Hispanic people generally place great value on maintaining the original two-parent family and its intensive involvement with the extended family. Commitment to the extended family group and upholding responsibilities to family members are emphasized. Note, however, that these family ideals are not always realized when families face the harsh realities of poverty, unemployment, and immigration difficulties (Longres & Aisenberg, 2008).
It is also important to be aware of the community support systems often available to Hispanic families. These include botanicas, bodegas, clubs sociales, canto familial, compadrazo, and faith healers. “Botanicas are shops that sell herbs as well as records and novels in Spanish. Bodegas are grocery stores, but they also serve as information centers for the Hispanic community, providing such infor mation as where folk healers can be found. [Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban Hispanic cultures espouse folk healers who help people deal with physical, emotional, and spiritual difficulties.] Club sociales provide recreation as well as links to community resources, including employment and housing.” There also are “special friends who furnish reciprocal support called como familial” and “the ritual kinship of compadrazo” people who “participate in baptisms, first communions, confirmations, and marriages, and often serve as parent substitutes” (Chilman, 1993, p. 160).
A third theme often characterizing Hispanic families is the traditional strict division of gender roles (Delgado-Romero et al., 2013; Dhooper & Moore, 2001; Sanchez & Jones, 2010; Weaver, 2005). Weaver (2005) reports that historically there
have been “clear and distinct expectations for men and women. Men are expected to be strong, and women are expected to be submissive to male authority” (Weaver, 2005, pp. 145–146). However, Santiago-Rivera, Arredondo, and Gallardo-Cooper (2002) caution that “considerable debate” exists
over the extent to which Latinos adhere to traditional gender roles in contemporary U.S. society. Although evidence suggests that gender roles are undergoing transformation, the complexities surrounding this phenomenon are far from clear-cut . . . When examining gender role-based behaviors among Latinos, one must consider a variety of influencing factors such as socioeconomic indicators (e.g., level of education, income), place of residency, migration experience, language, and family composition. These determinants significantly influence gender roles. (p. 51)
Many “Latinas now work outside the home and may wield decision-making power about family finances” (Weaver, 2005, p. 146). Additionally, “more Latinas are heading households and as a result must take on roles that were traditionally dominated by men. As single heads of households, women are responsible for making major decisions about the welfare of their families and for providing for and nurturing their children” (Santiago-Rivera et al., 2002, p. 51). In summary, “it is important to understand evolving gender roles within Latino families” (Weaver, 2005, p. 146).
Native American FamiliesWe have stressed that there are hundreds of Native American groups with hundreds of languages and dialects. Sensitivity to differences among tribes and appreciation of these differences are vital to effective social work practice. However, as with Hispanic people, several themes characterize many Native American groups. These include the importance of extended family, cooperation, mutual respect, harmony with nature, the concept of time, spirituality, and noninterference.
As with Hispanic people, family ties, including those with extended family, are very important (Diller, 2015; Paniagua, 2005; Sue & Sue, 2008). Extended family members include parents, children, cousins, aunts, uncles, grandparents, and even other community members who are integrally involved with the family. Diller (2015) explains:
Although the specifics of power distribution, roles, and kinship definitions vary from tribe to tribe, the vast majority of Native Peoples live in an extended family system that is conceptually different from the Western notion of family. Some tribes are matrilineal, which means that property and status are passed down through the women of the tribe. When a Hopi man marries, for example, he moves in with his wife’s family, and it is the wife’s brothers, not the father, who have primary
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.3 (continued)
(continued)
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2 0 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
responsibility for educating the sons. Family lies define existence, and the very definition of being a Navaho or a Sioux resides not within the individual’s personality, but rather in the intricacies of family and tribal responsibilities. When strangers meet, they identify themselves, not by occupation or residence but by who their relatives are. Individual family members feel a close and binding connection with a broad network of relatives (often including some who are not related by blood) that can extend as far as second cousins. (p. 270)
A second concept in Native American culture involves the emphasis on cooperation (Diller, 2015; Sue & Sue, 2008). The collective well-being of the family and tribe takes precedence over that of the individual (Paniagua, 2005). Weaver (2005) elaborates: “A sense of identity is rooted in group membership. Native people often refer to themselves as members of the Native community, regardless of their geographic location . . . Social cooperation is often valued over independent decision making. The wishes and plans of individuals must be balanced along with the needs of family and community members . . . This emphasis on the group leads to strong mutual support networks. The well-being of the group is paramount” (p. 90). Sue and Sue (2008) comment on how this emphasis on cooperation affects children: “Indian children tend to display sensitivity to the opinions and attitudes of their peers. They will actively avoid disagreements or contradictions. Most do not like to be singled out and made to perform in school unless the whole group would benefit” (p. 350).
A third theme that characterizes Native American culture is mutual respect, as Weaver (2005) explains: “Respect is emphasized in all social interactions. There are appropriate ways to communicate respectfully with others, including limiting eye contact and not interrupting someone who is speaking. People are accorded respect for the different roles they fulfill within a community. Elders are respected for their knowledge and wisdom, children are respected as the future of Native Nations, and leaders are respected for their willingness to sacrifice their own needs on behalf of First Nations [Native American] communities” (p. 91).
A fourth concept important in Native American culture is that of harmony with nature. Diller (2015) elaborates: “Native American cultures emphasize the interconnectedness and harmony of all living things and natural objects. This spiritual holism affirms the value and interdependence of all life forms. Nature is held in reverence, and Native people believe that it is their responsibility to live in harmony and safeguard the valuable resources we have been given” (p. 271).
A fifth theme of Native American life, related to harmony with nature, is the concept of time (Bearse, 2008; Diller, 2015). Time is considered an aspect of nature. Time flows along with life and, therefore, should not control or dictate how you live. Hence, other aspects of life, including interactions with other
people, become more important than getting somewhere on time. Sue and Sue (2008) further describe this orientation: “Indians are very much involved in the present rather than the future. Ideas of punctuality or planning for the future may be unimportant. Life is to be lived in the here and now” (p. 350).
A sixth theme of Native American values concerns the importance of spirituality (Bearse, 2008; Sue & Sue, 2008). “The spirit, mind, and body are all interconnected. Illness is a disharmony between these elements” (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 351). Spirituality, involving both tribal religion and Christianity, plays a critical role in the lives of many Native Americans. Although religious beliefs vary from one tribe to another, “religion is incorporated into their being from the time of conception, when many tribes perform rites and rituals to ensure the delivery of a healthy baby, to the death ceremonies, where great care is taken to promote the return or the person’s spirit to the life after this one” (Ho, 1987, p. 73).
A seventh important concept for Native Americans is noninterference (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 350). “It is considered inappropriate in Native American culture to intrude or interfere in the affairs of others. Boundaries and the natural order of things are to be respected . . . With regard to communication, a premium is placed on listening” (Diller, 2015, p. 270). It is generally considered better “to observe rather than react impulsively” (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 350). Silence is often used as a means of conveying respect (Diller, 2015).
Asian American FamiliesPeople who are typically considered Asian Americans are composed of three basic groups that, in turn, consist of numerous subgroups. These are “Asian Americans (Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, Asian Indians, and Koreans), Asian Pacific Islanders (Hawaiians, Samoans, and Guamanians), and Southeast Asian refugees (Vietnamese, Cambodians, and Laotians)” (Paniagua, 2005, p. 73). Obviously, there is great variation among these groups, even though they are clustered under the umbrella term Asian Americans. Here we discuss four themes that tend to characterize many Asian American families: the significance of family, interdependence, investment made in children, and patriarchal hierarchy.
Like Hispanic people and Native Americans, Asian Americans tend to consider the family as the primary unit and individual family members as secondary in importance (Balgopal, 2008; Diller, 2015; Leong, Lee, & Chang, 2008). Phillips (1996) elaborates: “The welfare and the integrity of the family are of great importance. The individual is expected to submerge or to repress emotions, desires, behaviors, and individual goals to further the welfare of family and maintain its reputation. The individual is obligated to save face, so as to not bring shame onto the family. Therefore, there is incentive to keep problems within the family so that the family will not ‘lose face’” (p. 1).
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.3 (continued)
(continued)
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 01
A second theme, related to the significance of the family, is interdependence (Balgopal, 2008; Diller, 2015; Leong et al., 2008; Sue, 2006). “Studies have found that for most Asian Americans, their immediate and extended family are important loci of identity formation, social learning, support, and role development” (Leong et al., 2008, p. 117). “Children are expected to strive for family goals and not to engage in behaviors that would bring dishonor to the family. Asian American parents tend to show little interest in the child’s viewpoint regarding family matters. Instead, the emphasis is on family harmony, adapting to the needs of others, and adherence to ‘correct’ values (Rothbaum, Morelli, Pott, & Liu-Constant, 2000). Asian American adolescents appear to retain the expectation to assist, support, and respect their family even when exposed to a society that emphasizes adolescent autonomy and independence (Fuligni et al., 1999)” (Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 362–363). An expectation that children will care for elderly parents is also important (Balgopal, 2008; Green, 1999).
A third theme characterizing many Asian American families involves hierarchical relationships (Balgopal, 2008; Sue, 2006; Sue & Sue, 2008). “Communication flows down from the parent to the child, who is expected to defer to the adults” (Sue & Sue, 2008, p. 363). Similarly, younger children are to defer to older children (Sue, 2006). Asian American families tend to have high expectations regarding children’s behavior and tend to impose stricter discipline
when misbehavior occurs (Balgopal, 2008; Sue, 2006; Sue & Sue, 2008). “Problem behavior in children is thought to be due to a lack of discipline. However, differences in parenting style between Asian American groups have been found. Japanese and Filipino American families tend to have the most egalitarian relationships, while Korean, Chinese, and Southeast Asian Americans are more authoritarian (Blair & Qian, 1998)” (Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 364–365).
A fourth theme involves patriarchal hierarchy (Balgopal, 2000, 2008; Sandtra & Madathil, 2013; Sue, 2006; Sue & Sue, 2008). Traditional values designate that men and older family members have greater status than other family members. Diller (2011) explains: “Family and gender roles and expectations are highly structured. Fathers are the breadwinners, protectors, and ultimate authorities. Mothers oversee the home, bear and care for children, and are under the authority of their fathers, husbands, inlaws, and at times even sons. Male children are highly prized . . . Older daughters are expected to play a caretaking function with younger siblings” (p. 274).
A Note on DifferenceOur discussion concerning cultural themes of values and behaviors is general and brief. Actual practices may vary dramatically from one ethnic group to another and from one family to another. The point here is to enhance your sensitivity to and appreciation of potential cultural differences so that you may better understand and serve your clients.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.3 (continued)
Spock (Spock, 1976; Spock & Rothenberg, 1985), the famous pediatrician who gave several genera-tions of parents advice about how to raise their chil-dren, provided some logical suggestions.
First, children should be told in advance about all the changes they are to experience. Changes might include sharing a bedroom or having the new baby use their old high chair. Preparing them in this way is supposed to minimize surprises. Not knowing what’s going to happen is scary for children. Second, Spock suggested continuing to talk to older children and emphasizing how much they are loved and valued. Finally, children should be encouraged to express their feelings, including the negative ones, so that parents can allay their children’s fears and address problems as they occur.
Sibling InteractionApproximately 80 percent of children in the United States have at least one brother or sister (Berk, 2012a; Santrock, 2016). Sibling interaction involves a mul-titude of behaviors and feelings. Siblings fight with
each other but they also play with each other, work to-gether, and show affection such as hugging each other.
Rathus (2011a) describes sibling interaction:
In early childhood, siblings’ interactions have positive aspects (cooperation, teaching, nurturance) and negative aspects (conflict, control, competition) (Parke & Buriel, 2006). Older siblings tend to be more caring but also more dominating than younger siblings. Younger siblings are more likely to imitate older siblings and accept their direction. . .
There is more conflict between siblings when the parents play favorites (Scharf et al., 2005). Conflict between siblings is also greater when the relationships between the parents or between the parents and children are troubled (Kim et al. 2006). (p. 167)
The Effects of Birth Order, Family Size, and Family SpacingIt is difficult to establish definite facts concern-ing birth order and development because so many factors are involved (e.g., parenting style, cultural
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2 0 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
expectations, socioeconomic status, number of per-sons residing in the family). However, some person-ality differences have been linked to birth order. Firstborn children tend to be more achievement oriented (Kail & Cave-naugh, 2010; Latham & Bud-worth, 2007; Rathus, 2011a). They also tend to do better academically (Healy & Ellis, 2007; Rathus, 2011a). “Compared with later-born children, first-born children have also been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled,” although such differences are usually small (Santrock, 2016, p. 296). “On the negative side, firstborn children . . . show greater anxiety and are less self-reliant than later-born children” (Rathus, 2011a, p. 167).
Rathus (2014c) reflects:
Later-born children may learn to act aggressively to compete for the attention of their parents and older siblings . . . Their self-concepts tend to be lower than those of firstborn or only children, but the social skills later-born children acquire from dealing with their family position seem to translate into greater popularity with peers . . . They also tend to be more rebellious and liberal than firstborn children (Beck et al., 2006; Zweigenhaft & Von Ammon, 2000).
By and large, parents are more relaxed and flexible with later-born children. Many parents see that the firstborn child is turning out well and perhaps they assume that later-born children will also turn out well. (p. 161)
What about only children? Some research indi-cates that only children tend to be more achievement oriented and have more pleasant personalities than later-born children, especially those in large fami-lies (Jiao, Ji, & Jing, 1996; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010; Santrock, 2012b). Please keep in mind, though, that no absolute predictors exist for how any child will turn out. Many other factors in the social environ-ment can affect development.
Gender-Role SocializationInfants are treated differently by virtue of their gen-der from the moment that they are born (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014; Yarber & Sayad, 2013). There is almost immediate segregation by pink or blue cloth-ing. A basic question remains unresolved. To what extent are males and females inherently different, and in what ways?
This question is related to the nature-nurture ar-gument regarding why people become the people they do. Supporters of the nature idea argue that people are innately programmed with inborn, ge-netic, or natural predispositions. According to the nurture perspective, people are the product of their environment. That is, people are affected by what happens to them from the day they’re born; they learn from their environment and are shaped by it. Each side of the debate has evidence and research to support its perspective. Probably the answer lies somewhere in the middle. People are probably born with certain potentials and predispositions that are then shaped, strengthened, or suppressed by their environments. Gender roles will be discussed again later in this chapter, in regard to differences in play, and more extensively in Chapter 9.
LO 10 Assess Relevant Aspects of the Social EnvironmentThe family does not provide the only means of so-cialization for children. They are also exposed to other children as they play and to other adults, es-pecially in the school setting. The transactions chil-dren have with their peers and with adults in school directly affect both the children’s behavior and their social development. Children learn how to relate to others socially. They learn what types of social be-haviors others expect from them. They also are in-fluenced by the amount of time they spend watching television. Issues to be addressed here include the social aspects of play, bullying, the influence of tele-vision and other media, and the role of the school. The impact of each will be related to the social de-velopment of children.
The Social Aspects of Play with PeersLuther, who is 8, screamed at the top of his lungs, “Red light, green light, hope to see the ghosts to-night!” He spun around and peered through the darkness. He was playing his favorite game, and he was “it.” That meant that he counted to 20 and then had to find the others and tag them. The first one tagged had to be “it” the next time.
“Where were those other kids anyway?” he said silently to himself. Randy usually hid in the gar-bage can. He thought that that made him smell so
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 0 3
unappealing that no one would look for him there. Siggy, on the other hand, liked to hide in the bushes by the drainage ditch. However, a lot of mosquitoes were likely to consume anybody brave enough to venture over in that direction.
Horace was always an enigma. Luther never knew exactly where he was likely to hide. Once he had managed to squeeze into old Charlie’s doghouse. Charlie was a miniature mongrel.
On serious consideration of which route to take, Luther decided that the garbage can was his fast-est and easiest bet. Just as Luther could’ve sworn that he heard Randy sneeze inside the garbage can, he heard his mother’s call. “Luther, you get in here this minute. I told you four times that you have to be home by 8:30 on weeknights. Come in right now, do you hear?”
“Aw, rats,” mumbled Luther. Just when he started to have some fun, he always had to quit and go home. Along came the other guys. See, he was right. Randy was in the garbage can, and sure enough, Siggy popped out from behind the bushes by the drainage ditch. As usual, he was scratching. Randy’s mother was really going to give it to him when he got home. He did smell awfully bad. Horace appeared suddenly out of nowhere. He wasn’t about to waste a good secret hiding place for nothing.
All four boys dragged themselves home. They walked as slowly as they could and procrastinated appropriately. Another hard summer’s day of play was done, but they were already thinking about tomorrow.
Children’s play serves several purposes. It encour-ages children to use their muscles and develop physi-cally. It allows them to fantasize and think creatively. Finally, play enables children to learn how to relate to peers. Play provides a format for learning how to communicate, compete, and share. It functions as a major avenue of socialization.
Garvey (1977) defines play as activity that in-volves the following five qualities: First, play must be something that is done purely for enjoyment and not for a reward or because it is considered appropri-ate. Second, play has no purpose other than to be an end in itself. Third, people who play choose to do it. No one can force a person to play. Fourth, play in-volves active participation in an activity. Either men-tally or physically, the individual must be involved. Pure observation does not qualify as play. Fifth, play enhances socialization and creativity. Play provides
a context in which to learn interaction and physical and mental skills.
Play and InteractionThere are at least two basic ways of looking at how children play. These include social play and fantasy play. Social play involves the extent to which children interact with other children as they play. Fantasy play involves what children think about and how they imagine their pretend games as they play.
Social PlayParten (1932) conceptualized a model for how chil-dren progress in their development of social play. Her research, which was done in the 1920s, focused on children ages 2 to 5. Observations of the children in action led to the proposition that there are actu-ally six different levels of play. Theoretically, chil-dren progress through the following levels as they get older:
1. Unoccupied behavior: Unoccupied behavior in-volves little or no activity. A child might be sitting or standing quietly. Frequently, the child’s atten-tion is focused on observing something going on around him.
2. Onlooker play: A child involved in onlooker play is simply observing the playing behavior of other children. The child is mentally involved in what the other children are doing. However, the child is not physically participating in the play. Onlooker play differs from solitary play in that the child’s attention is focused on the play of peers, instead of on simply anything that might be happening around him or her.
3. Solitary play: Solitary play involves the child playing independently. No attention is given to other children or what they might be doing.
4. Parallel play: A child involved in parallel play is playing independently but is playing in a similar manner or with similar toys as other children in the immediate vicinity. The child is playing es-sentially the same way as the other children, al-though no interaction occurs.
5. Associative play: Here children play together. There is some interaction, but the interaction is not organized. For example, children may share toys or activities and talk with each other. How-ever, their play is very individualized. Each child plays independently from the others and focuses on individual activities.
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2 0 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
6. Cooperative play: Cooperative play involves orga-nized interaction. Children play with each other in order to attain a similar goal, make something together, or dramatize a situation together. Atten-tion is focused on the group activity. Cooperation is necessary. Children clearly feel that they are a part of the group.
Parten proposed that different age levels are char-acterized by different types of play. Two-year-old children tend to play by themselves. By age 3, paral-lel play begins to be evident. Associative play is en-gaged in by more and more children as they reach the age of 4. By age 5, most children participate in cooperative play.
Parten’s levels of play have been criticized on several fronts. For one thing, the model doesn’t ad-dress the complexity of play; all children can be observed to participate in all levels of play (Papalia & Feldman, 2012; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). Another question involves how solitary play is viewed in Parten’s model. Is solitary play really less mature than play occurring in groups? Much of chil-dren’s solitary play is thoughtful, educational, and creative by nature, helping children to develop more advanced cognitive thinking. Where do such solitary activities such as drawing or building with blocks and Legos fit into Parten’s conception of normal play development?
Parents need to be aware of the normal develop-mental aspects of play at different age levels. Expec-tations of parents and other caregivers need to be realistic. Children should be encouraged to play with other children in ways appropriate to their age level. Yet children should not be pushed into activities that are beyond them. Children who are isolated in their play activities at an age when they need to be more outgoing may need encouragement in that direction. Parents and other caregivers can help children de-velop their play and interactional skills.
Gender Differences in PlayTwo gender-related differences in behavior appear early in life. One is a difference in aggressive be-havior with respect to play (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Boys behave more aggressively than girls. The other early behavioral difference is in toy preference (Rathus, 2014b). By age 3 or 4 girls begin choosing to play with dolls and participate in housekeeping play. Boys are more oriented toward toys such as trucks and guns. The reasons for these differences are not
clear. Perhaps children play with the toys they are given and encouraged to play with. Girls’ rooms are filled with dolls and items devised for playing house. Boys’ rooms display various action-oriented toys such as cars, trucks, guns, and sports equipment.
For example, when Aunt Karen took 3-year-old Andrea, her niece and the apple of her eye, to Kmart one day to buy her a toy, Andrea headed straight for the “girls’ toys,” not the “boys’ toys.” When Aunt Karen suggested Andrea look at some “fun” trucks and cars (Aunt Karen knew that it was good for girls to become oriented to cars and trucks, both because they’ll have to use real ones someday and because such play aids in the development of spatial percep-tion skills), Andrea screwed up her nose and said “No! Those are boys’ toys!” Her response was inter-esting because Andrea’s mother did most of the me-chanical fixing and all of the outdoor work at their home. The impact of the media, especially television, and Andrea’s observation of other people must have been very great.
Another reason for the differences in toy prefer-ence may be that children, who become conscious of gender by age 3 (Crooks & Baur, 2014), learn early how they should be playing. They watch television and observe Mommy and Daddy; they learn that girls and boys should like to do different things.
There are at least three logical reasons why girls’ behavior is less aggressive than that of boys (Lott, 1987). These reasons all seem to relate to and re-inforce each other. First, girls have fewer chances to “practice” aggressive behavior such as fighting, breaking, or hurting things. Second, girls’ aggres-sive behavior is less likely to be encouraged by adults than is the aggressive behavior of boys.
For instance, Aunt Karen had an opportunity to observe 3-year-old Andrea in the company of her male and female nursery-school peers. They were on a field trip to a local pumpkin farm with the idea of picking some small pumpkins. All of the boys in Andrea’s group were kicking, screaming, punching, bumping, running, and making brrrrrrrr and grrrrrrrr sounds. Several of the mothers calmly observed, smiled, and made proud comments like, “Isn’t he a real boy?” Meanwhile the girls stood silently on the sidelines watching the boys have “fun.” When one girl tried to get involved, her mother said, “Oh, no, Chrissy, you might get hurt. Those boys are so rough.”
A third reason why girls are less aggressive, according to Lott, is that girls are less likely to
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 0 5
“experience success” at being aggressive than are boys. Boys are encouraged by adults to be more practiced at aggression than girls. Girls, on the other hand, are reinforced for being gentler and more ladylike.
The Peer Group and PopularityThe peer group is made up of a child’s equals. It can have an increasing impact on children as they get older, more independent, and more experienced. On a positive note, the peer group provides an arena for children to learn about themselves, build their self-concepts, and learn how to interact with others. On a negative note, the peer group can place pressure on children to do things they would never consider do-ing on their own.
Some children get along fabulously with peers; others are avoided, isolated, and withdrawn. What makes a child popular? Researchers have studied popular and unpopular children and concluded that popular children tend to display certain characteris-tics (Newcomb, Bukowski, & Pattee, 1993; Papalia & Martorell, 2015). They tend to be friendly with oth-ers and interact easily. They are neither too aggres-sive nor too passive. They tend to be trustworthy and able to supply emotional responsiveness and support to peers. They usually are bright and creative, yet don’t act superior or arrogant.
On the other hand, children who are unpopular tend to be characterized by opposite traits. They are socially immature. They tend either to be too pushy and demanding, or very shy and withdrawn. They might not be the brightest children around or the most attractive. They may not have the listening skills and the ability to empathize with others that popular children seem to have.
A common technique for examining children’s in-teraction is referred to as sociometry. This involves asking children questions about their relationships and feelings toward other people. The relationships can be illustrated on a diagram called a sociogram. Children in a group might be asked questions such as which three peers they like the best, which three they like the least, who they most admire, who would they like to sit next to, or who are they most afraid of. Each child can be represented by a circle. Arrows can then be drawn to the people they indicate in an-swer to each question.
Sociograms are shown in Figure 4.4. A socio-gram can be created to illustrate the results of each
question asked. Our example plots out two ques-tions. The first reflects students’ feelings about who they thought was the strongest leader in the group. The second illustrates which peer they most liked in the group.
Sociogram A clearly illustrates that Toby is thought to be the strongest leader in the group. He is bright, energetic, and very “street smart.” How-ever, Sociogram B clearly illustrates that he is not the most popular or best liked in the group. Both Tom
Toby
Toby
Sociogram A
Sociogram B
Dave
Dave
Students were asked who they felt was the strongest leaderin the group. Arrows reflect their feelings. Toby clearly hasthat status.
Here students were asked which person they liked the mostin the group. Tom and Maria appear to be the most popular.
Tom
Tom
Dean
Dean
Vince
Vince
Darlene
Darlene
Maria
Maria
Albert
Albert
Stevie
Stevie
FIGURE 4.4 Sociograms of a Special Education Class
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2 0 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and Maria shine there. They both are more mature than the other group members. They are assertive and fairly self-confident, yet don’t impose their will on the others. They are among the brightest in the group. Toby, on the other hand, is more feared than respected. The others admire his apparent sophisti-cation, yet don’t trust him. He doesn’t let anyone get close to him emotionally or physically. He keeps his distance.
Vince’s opinions differ radically from those of other group members. Vince stays by himself most of the time. He loves to wander off whenever he can. He sees Dean as being both a strong and likable leader. Dean is a very active, verbal person who is always in the center of activity. He has some trouble controlling his behavior and tends to provoke the other group members. Perhaps Vince admires Dean’s involvement.
These two sociograms are examples of how in-sights into a group’s interaction can be obtained and visually pictured. Although they only begin to por-tray some of the complexities of the group’s interac-tion, they do provide some interesting clues.
We’ve been speaking of children as being popular or unpopular. It is as if on a popularity scale from 1 to 10, each child is either a very unpopular 1 or a very popular 10. In real life, of course, most people lie somewhere in between. They may have some of the characteristics of the “popular person,” but not others.
It appears that social skills provide a primary ba-sis for popularity. It follows, then, that because skills in general can be learned, social skills can be learned and popularity increased. Training may focus on teaching children how to draw attention to them-selves in positive ways and to improve their ability to communicate with peers. Good communication skills involve showing interest in peers, asking appro-priate questions, and sharing information that might be interesting to other children. Sometimes role playing is employed to teach children more effective responses to make in various situations (e.g., when playing a game or trying to get in line for recess).
Bullying“Nine-year-old Stephanie did not want to go to school . . . She had gotten into a disagreement with Susan, and Susan had told her she would beat her mercilessly if she showed up at school again. To
highlight her warning, Susan had shoved Stephanie across the hall” (Ramus, 2014c, p. 217).
In this example, Susan was the bully and Stepha-nie the bully-victim. Steinberg and his colleagues (2011b) describe bullying:
Bullying refers to aggression by an individual that is repeatedly directed toward particular peers (victims) . . . It may be physical (hitting, kicking, shoving, tripping), verbal (teasing, harassing, name-calling), or social (public humiliation or exclusion). Bullying differs from other forms of aggression in that it is characterized by specificity (bullies direct their acts to certain peers) and by an imbalance of power between the bully and the victim . . . An older child bullies a younger one; a large child picks on a small, weaker one; a verbally assertive child torments a shy, quiet child. It is not bullying when equals have an occasional fight or disagreement. Bullies are more likely to use force unemotionally. (p. 318)
Although boys are more likely to bully, girls can also participate in such aggressive behavior (Perren & Alsaker, 2006). “In a national survey of more than 15,000 sixth- through tenth-grade students, nearly one of every three students said that they had experi-enced occasional or frequent involvement as a victim or perpetrator in bullying (Nansel & others, 2001)” (Santrock, 2016, p. 402; 2012b). Some research in-dicates that bullies and their victims are in regu-lar contact with each other as 70 to 80 percent of them share the same classroom (Salmivalli & Peets, 2009). Therefore, it is a significant problem for many children.
The social environment and expectations about how peers should behave also can affect the occur-rence of bullying (Salmivalli, Peets, & Hodges, 2011; Schwartz, Kelly, Duong, & Badaly, 2010). Peers are frequently aware of and observe bullying as it hap-pens. Some bullies may even want observers so that they can feel important and powerful in front of witnesses.
Victims tend to fall into two categories (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). “The first are children who are shy, anxious, and socially withdrawn, which makes them easy prey. Often they do not have friends to protect them. But other victims are high in aggres-sion themselves and engage in irritating behavior that elicits aggression. Other children see them as ‘asking for it’” (Steinberg et al., 2011b, p. 319).
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 07
What results from bullying? Some recent re-search indicates that when bullies and bully-victims become adolescents, they are more likely to be-come depressed, think about committing suicide, and actually commit suicide (Brunstein Klomek, Marrocco, Kleinman, Schonfeld, & Gould, 2007). Other research indicates that adolescents who had been either bullies or bully-victims “had more health problems (such as headaches, dizziness, sleep prob-lems, and anxiety) than their counterparts who were not involved in bullying” (Santrock, 2009, p. 458; 2012b; Srabstein, McCarter, Shao, & Huang, 2006).
A newer type of bullying is called cyberbullying or online bullying. Cyberbullying is bullying that takes place using an electronic device, such as the computer or a cell phone, to access social media sites (Facebook, Snapchat, etc.), email, instant messaging, texting, or videos in order to bully, embarrass, or hurt another individual (stopbullying.gov, 2016). Due to easy access to electronic devices, cyberbullying can happen 24 hours a day, seven days a week. The School Crime supplement statistics show that 7 per-cent of students in grades 6 to 12 have experienced cyberbullying (stopbullying.gov, 2016). In another study, an average of 26 percent of students in an eight-year period said they had been a victim of
cyberbullying at some point in their lifetime (Patchin & Hinduja, 2015). In addition, once these messages are sent or posted it can be difficult to track down the sender or erase the message, making the bullying almost impossible to get away from. In certain states, bullying and/or cyberbullying can be classified as a crime and most states have policy mandating schools address bullying (Cyberbullying Research Center, 2016).
So what can be done about bullying? Dupper (2013) suggests nine steps that school personnel can take to discourage and stop bullying among students:
An essential first step is conducting an accurate assessment of the extent and nature of bullying in the school . . . [This can be done by] administering an anonymous questionnaire to students about bullying. . . Findings from this survey can be used to motivate adults to take action against bullying and to help administrators and other educators tailor a bullying prevention strategy to the particular needs of the school. . .
A second step involves garnering the widespread support and significant commitment of all key stakeholders (e.g., administrators, teachers, students, parents, auxiliary school staff and
Bullying involves aggressive, hurtful behavior by bullies toward targeted peer victims.
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2 0 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
community partners) in recognizing the importance of the problem and making a commitment to establish prevention and intervention programs and policies . . .
A third step is the formation of a school coordinating team. This team includes representatives from a number of groups, including a school administrator, a teacher from each grade, a member of the nonteaching staff, a school counselor or other school-based mental health professional (e.g., school social worker), a school nurse, and a parent. This team is involved in the development, implementation, maintenance, and evaluation of the program . . .
A fourth step involves the development and provision of ongoing in-service training for teachers and all adults in the school environment who interact with students . . .
A fifth strategy recognizes that antibullying efforts cannot be successful unless the language and needs of youth are taken into account . . . [One study] found that many youths engaged in practices that adults label “bullying” but that the youths do not name them as such because admitting that they’re being bullied (or worse, they are bullies) makes them feel weak and childish . . . When teenagers acknowledge that they’re being bullied, adults need to provide programs similar to those that help victims of abuse [that empower students and aid in] . . . emotional recovery . . .
A sixth strategy focuses on shifting group norms and dynamics in schools by targeting bystanders in antibullying interventions . . . [In some schools bullying behavior is taken for granted and becomes the norm. Students must be educated about bullying and empowered to come forward, label such behavior, and help stop it when it occurs.]
The seventh strategy is the establishment and enforcement of a discipline policy that includes simple, clear rules about bullying as well as the development of appropriate positive and negative consequences that are consistently enforced. . .
An eighth strategy involves an increase in adult supervision in the areas of the school where bullying occurs with the greatest frequency (i.e., “hot spots”) . . . Once school personnel have identified these “hot spots,” they should discuss and implement creative ways to increase adults’ presence in these locations in order to reduce opportunities for bullying. . .
A ninth and final strategy is to direct prevention and intervention efforts at the transition from elementary to middle school and throughout the critical middle school years due to a documented increase in bullying during early adolescence. (pp. 73–81)
The Influence of Television and Other MediaBecause television has become such a common as-pect of a child’s environment, it merits a few com-ments here. Children spend 20 to 25 hours a week watching television; if continued at that rate, a high school graduate would have spent a full 2 years watching television for 24 hours a day (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2016; Rathus, 2014c). Of course, this is only an average. Some children watch more tele-vision than others, and others are playing video games on the television. For example, children from lower-income families watch more television than do their counterparts in families with higher economic status; “television is relatively cheap entertainment, and low-income families may not have the money to spend on other sources of entertainment” (Lemish, 2007; Martin & Fabes, 2009, p. 332). Also, the amount of time spent watching television varies with age. Martin and Fabes (2009) explain:
Children’s television viewing time increases during the preschool years to an average of 2.5 hours each day and continues to increase through the elementary school years (Lemish, 2007). Viewing time peaks at about 4 hours per day just before the start of adolescence, when competing activities reduce the number of hours spent in front of the television set (Pecora, Murray, & Wartella, 2007). When computers, DVDs, and video games are taken into account, children today spend an average of 5 hours a day in front of “video screens” (Woodward & Gridina, 2001). Similar patterns have been found in other countries (Lemish, 2007). (p. 332)
A major question raised about the impact of televi-sion is whether TV teaches children to be violent and aggressive. Research indicates that television does influence and increase children’s violent behavior (Berk, 2008a; Newman & Newman 2015; Rathus, 2011a; Wilson, 2008). Rathus (2011a) reflects:
Television is a fertile source of aggressive models (Villani, 2001). Children are routinely exposed to TV scenes of murder, beating, and sexual assault.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 0 9
Children who watch 2 to 4 hours a day of TV will see 8,000 murders and another 100,000 acts of violence by the time they have finished elementary school. (p. 172)
Even children’s cartoons demonstrate extremely violent behavior. How many times have the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles battled “bad guys” with seri-ously lethal, sharp, and dangerous weapons? How many times has the Coyote been blown up with a stick of dynamite given to him by the Roadrunner? How many times has Donald Duck been smashed by a baseball bat or pushed off a steep cliff ? When you think about it, the implications of the amount of violence depicted are scary.
Note that television isn’t the only medium that can potentially teach and provoke aggressive behav-ior. Most video games provide a means not only to view, but also actually to practice, violent behavior. Many such games closely resemble reality. They pro-vide a means to engage actively in violent pursuits, usually shooting down people or other figures. Even worse, they reinforce violent behavior by awarding points when targets are effectively annihilated.
At least three processes may operate to increase children’s aggression in response to TV or video game violence (Newman & Newman, 2015; Rathus, 2014c). First, children may model the violent behav-ior they see. If Rambo and other famous movie and TV characters can do it, why can’t they? Second, vio-lence is arousing, so children are more likely to lose control and become more violent. TV violence can serve as a stimulus to trigger increased emotionality and aggression. Third, regular exposure to TV vio-lence can influence a child’s value system and beliefs about how the world really is. Children who see a lot of violence may take it for granted that violence hap-pens everywhere much of the time. How many times might a child watch a young man get “blown away” in vivid blood-red color before that image becomes commonplace in that child’s mind?
Other research establishes a relationship between the amount of violent television viewed in child-hood and the amount of aggressiveness manifested by participants as adults (Huesmann & Miller, 1994; Johnson, Cohen, Smailes, Kasen, & Brook, 2002; Newman & Newman, 2012). In other words, chil-dren who watch more violent television may actu-ally display more violent behavior themselves when they grow up. The link between TV violence and later aggression has been established even when other
variables such as socioeconomic status and parents’ level of education are taken into account (Johnson et al., 2002). A survey by Time found that 66 percent of respondents believed there was too much violence on television (Poniewozik, 2005). Playing violent video games has also been linked to increased aggres-sion and decreased concern for others in children and teens (Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Anderson et al., 2003). Violence is enhanced when children play rou-tinely and identify with violent characters used and displayed in the game (Konijn, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007). Research also found that placing age restric-tions on games or labeling them as being violent only increased their attractiveness to children of all age groups, including children ages 7 to 8 and girls (Bijvank, Konijn, Bushman, & Roelofsma, 2009).
Some young people commit extraordinarily vio-lent acts as they grow into adults, possibly dem-onstrating a link with TV violence. Consider the following examples:
● 20-year-old Adam Lanza, who, after killing his mother, took three guns to Sandy Hook Elemen-tary School in Newtown, Connecticut. After shooting his way into the security-locked build-ing, he shot and killed twenty 6- and 7-year-old students and six adults (CNN.com, 2013).
● 17-year-old senior Robert Butler, Jr., who, on January 5, 2011, fatally shot one Omaha, Nebraska, school administrator and then seri-ously wounded another after Butler had been suspended; he later shot and killed himself (World-Herald News Service, 2011).
● 23-year-old English major Cho Seung-Hui. Dressed in dark clothing resembling that por-trayed in a popular video game, he suddenly opened fire on his fellow students at Virginia Tech, killing 31 of them, his instructor, and him-self (ABC News, 2007; Romano, 2007).
● for mer student Stephen Kazmierczak, who, on February 15, 2008, abruptly opened fire on students at Northern Illinois University, killing 5 and wounding 16 before killing himself (NPR, 2008a, 2008b).
Following the April 1999 massacre of 12 high school students and a teacher by two teens at Colum-bine High School in Littleton, Colorado, President Clinton made three pleas to the media (Harris, 1999). First, “he urged movie studios to stop showing guns in ads and previews that children can see” (p. A3).
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210 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Second, “he asked theaters and video stores to more rigorously enforce rules barring unchaperoned chil-dren under age 17 from viewing R-rated movies” (p. A3). Third, “he called for re-evaluating the ratings system, ‘especially the PG rating,’ to decide whether the ratings are ‘allowing too much gratuitous vio-lence’ in movies approved for children” (p. A3).
There is another side to television, however. Ac-cording to Newman and Newman (2012), “many programs, some developed for children and others in-tended for a broader viewing audience—convey posi-tive ethical messages about the value of family life, the need to work hard and sacrifice in order to achieve im-portant goals, the value of friendship, the importance of loyalty and commitment in relationships, and many other cultural values” (p. 261). For example, consider Sesame Street, which emphasizes the devel-opment of reading and arithmetic skills in addition to imparting such values as consideration for others’ feelings. Television “can have a positive influence on children’s development by presenting motivating edu-cational programs, increasing their information about the world beyond their immediate environment, and providing models of prosocial behavior [interactions involving collaboration, support, and positive com-munication] (Wilson, 2008)” (Santrock, 2013, p. 317).
The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) (2007) suggests that parents scrutinize their chil-dren’s viewing behavior by observing how their children act after watching TV and by watching the programs themselves. Limits should be set regarding what is appropriate and what is not. When violence does occur, parents should talk to children about it. Parents can emphasize that violence is a bad way to solve problems and that better, nonviolent ways are available. Finally, parents should seek out television programs, games, and videos that provide high-qual-ity, nonviolent content for children to watch.
Ethical Questions 4.6
EP 1
Is there too much violence on television? Should the amount of violence be monitored? Is so, who should be responsible for setting standards and scrutinizing content? Should children’s viewing of television be limited? If so, in what ways?
The School EnvironmentSchool provides a major arena for socialization, where children are taught social customs, rules, and communication skills. Schools can influence chil-dren’s dreams and aspirations about future careers. Schools help to mold the ways in which children think. Specific issues related to the school environ-ment will be discussed here. They include the teach-er’s impact, the elements of an effective classroom, and the effects of social class and race.
The Teacher’s ImpactStudents frequently perform at the level of their teachers’ expectations. This is sometimes referred to as a self-fulfilling prophecy—that is, students will perform to the level of expectation placed upon them. Higher expectations, therefore, can result in greater achievement.
There is some indication that low achievers are even more responsive to higher teacher expecta-tions than are higher achievers (Madom, Jussim, & Eccles, 1997; Martin & Fabes, 2009; Smith, Jussim, & Eccles, 1999). Teachers should avoid categorizing students as poor performers, but rather should en-courage them to work to the best of their ability.
Martin and Fabes (2009) reflect on how teach-ers can also influence children’s social development (Pianta, 2006): “This influence can be quite positive, encouraging feelings of competence and well-being. For example, teachers have been found to enhance positive outcomes for students if they (1) reduce the tendency of students to compare themselves with one another, (2) use cooperative interaction strat-egies in the classroom, (3) promote beliefs about students’ competencies rather than their deficien-cies, (4) increase chances for students to be success-ful, and (5) are warm, encouraging, and supportive (Pianta & Stuhlman, 2004; Stipek, 1997)” (p. 437).
Effective School EnvironmentsThe school environment can be a warm, welcoming place that encourages learning and productivity. Or, it can be a scary, intimidating setting that discour-ages students from even being there. A substantial body of research has established that the follow-ing variables are related to an effective school en-vironment (Rathus, 2014b; Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, pp. 624–625):
● School Climate: Students’ positive perception of the school’s climate is an important variable in
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 211
encouraging learning. This includes both their feelings of safety and teachers’ “support and en-couragement” (Loukas & Robinson, 2004; Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 624; Taylor & Lopez, 2005a). If students feel welcome and safe, it makes sense that they would experience greater freedom and have more energy to devote to making academic and social progress (Eccles & Roeser, 2005; Taylor & Lopez, 2005b).
● Academic Emphasis: Children perform best in schools that stress on academic work. Academic goals should be clearly specified. Homework that is explained, discussed, and evaluated should be required.
● Challenging, Developmentally Appropriate Curri-cula: Children can relate much better to content that focuses on their ethnicity, cultural back-ground, customs, and history, and that involves the issues they’re currently facing in life. Incor-porating such content into the curriculum can motivate students to learn because what they’re learning is interesting and relevant to them. Us-ing such appropriate curricula enhances their achievement in areas such as “effort, attention, attendance, and appropriate classroom behav-ior” (Jackson & Davis, 2000; Lee & Smith, 2001;
Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 624). On the other hand, content that “turns off ” student interest can lead to lower achievement levels and distancing from the educational environment (Eccles & Roeser, 2005; Jackson & Davis, 2000).
● Classroom Management: Having organized, effi-cient classrooms with structured expectations can encourage a healthy learning environment. Time management skills can be used to keep activities and lessons proceeding on time. This provides stu-dents with both direction and encouragement to get things done. Students should be consistently given positive reinforcement and praise to encour-age productivity and high-quality effort. “The most effective teachers ask questions, give per-sonalized feedback, and provide opportunities for drill and practice, as opposed to straight lectur-ing” (Rathus, 2011a, p. 431).
● Discipline: Rules should be clearly stated and con-sequences for rule violations imposed immedi-ately. Physical punishment should be avoided, as it can lead to uncontrolled results and further ag-gressive behavior. “Students do not do well when teachers rely heavily on criticism, ridicule, threats, or punishment” (Rathus, 2011b, p. 431). At the same time, encouraging obedient, cooperative
An effective school environment can positively enhance students’ ability to learn and thrive.
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212 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
head Start and cultural ResponsivenessHead Start is a program aimed at increasing the readiness to early childhood education and improves school readiness for low-income children. In 2014, Head Start programs served over 900,000 children, 29 percent who spoke a language other than English at home (Head Start, 2016). In 2007, the Improving Head Start for School Readiness Act was created to support children whose primary language was not English and who represent the diverse culture in the United States (National Center on Cultural and Linguistic Responsiveness, 2013).
Head Start has adopted 10 multicultural principles to ensure they were effectively meeting the needs of the different cultures among their community and workers. These 10 principles include the following: “1) Every individual is rooted in culture, 2) The cultural groups represented in the communities and families of each Head Start program are the primary sources for culturally relevant programming, 3) Culturally relevant and diverse programming requires learning accurate information about the cultures of different groups and disregarding stereotypes, 4) Addressing cultural relevance in making curriculum choices and adaptations is a necessary, developmentally appropriate practice, 5) Every individual has the right to maintain his or her own identify while acquiring the skills required to function in our diverse society, 6) Effective programs for children who speak languages other than English require continued development of the first language while the acquisition of English is facilitated, 7) Culturally relevant programming requires staff who both reflect and are responsive to the community and families served, 8) Multicultural programming for children
enables children to develop an awareness of, respect for, and appreciation of individual and cultural differences, 9) Culturally relevant and diverse programming examines and challenges institutional and personal biases, and 10) Culturally relevant and diverse programming and practices are incorporated in all systems and services and are beneficial to all adults and children” (Head Start, 2016). These principles have a strong focus on working with the family and communities to ensure children’s needs are met.
According to data, Head Start does appear to be working (National Head Start Association, 2016). Aikens, Kopack Kleing, Tarullo, and West (2013) found that children in Head Start make progress towards norms in language, literacy, and math during the program year; and also show gains in social-emotional development as a result of participating in Head Start at both 3 and 4 years of age. In another study, it was found that parents were more likely to enroll their child for a second year of Head Start if the program was supportive of their culture and that Dual Language Learners and Black children benefited more than other groups from Head Start (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2010). Early education programs using utilizing multicultural principles may help children of diverse backgrounds be ready for school.
Ongoing research is needed to establish what is really h ap p e n i n g i n s c h o o l e nv i ro n m e n t s. Pe r h ap s g re at e r resources are necessary to update materials and enhance the multicultural learning atmosphere. Other targets of change may include teacher attitudes and skills. Teachers may require special training to meet the special needs of people from various cultural backgrounds.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.4
children to use their own discretion in making decisions where possible enhances their self-con-fidence and ability to achieve (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Grolnick, Gurland, Jacob, & Decourcey, 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2000a, 2000b).
● Teamwork: “Effective schools have faculties that work as a team, jointly planning curricular objectives and monitoring student progress, under the guidance of a principal who provides active, energetic leadership” (Shaffer & Kipp, 2010, p. 625).
Spotlight 4.4 discusses how an educational pro-gram was developed to emphasize cultural strengths and meet the educational needs of Hawaiian students.
Ethical Question 4.7
EP 1
What elements in the classroom environment do you believe are most effective, and why?
Race, Ethnicity, and SchoolsGaps exist between the educational at-tainment of whites and some other ethnic groups, including Hispanics and African Americans. Whereas 88.8 per-cent of Caucasians graduate from high
EP 2aEP 2c
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 213
school, 87 percent of African Americans and only 66.7 percent of Hispanics do so (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016). About 32.8 percent of Caucasians have a col-lege education or more, whereas only 72.5 percent of African Americans and 15.5 percent of Hispanics achieve this educational level (U.S. Census Bureau, 2016).
A number of reasons may account for the dis-crepancies in educational attainment among whites, African Americans, and Hispanics. Some educators have attributed these differences to external fac-tors such as lower socioeconomic status (Duncan & Brooks-Gunn, 2000; Steinberg et al., 2011b) and poorer quality schools (McAdoo, 2007). Both African Americans and Hispanics are more likely to have lower socioeconomic status than whites. Are schools in poorer neighborhoods receiving necessary resources to provide students with a good education? Other reasons for the discrepancy in educational attainment may involve internal variables, such as a social atmosphere, that discourage students and obstruct their performance. Also, textbooks and in-structional materials may not adequately reflect rel-evant cultural values and ethnicity. For example, to what extent are African American and Hispanic his-tory, literature, and values emphasized? Are teach-ers’ and educational administrators’ expectation levels for their students of different cultures too low? Do teachers have biases about the capabilities of stu-dents in particular ethnic groups?
LO 11 Examine Child MaltreatmentRalphie, age 8, came to school one day with his arm in a gigantic cast. His teacher asked him what had happened. He said he fell down the steps and broke his arm. He didn’t seem to want to talk about it much. When pressed about why the cast was so large, he replied, “Oh, that’s ’cause I busted it in a couple of places.” The teacher thought to herself how strange it was that he suffered such a severe in-jury from a simple fall. Eight-year-olds are usually so resilient.
Angel, age 4, didn’t want to sit down when one of her caregivers at the day care center asked her to. It was almost as if she was in pain. The caretaker called the center’s nurse to examine Angel. The nurse found a doughnut-shaped burn on her buttocks.
When asked how it happened, Angel said she didn’t remember. The nurse thought to herself how strange this situation was.
As the plumber left the porch of the last house he visited, he wondered to himself how people could possibly live that way. There were three filthy, un-kempt small children eating Froot Loops and glued to a blaring television set. The toilet was filthy; he was glad he had extra-thick rubber gloves on as he worked on the pipes. Then, as he was leaving the home, a small puppy leisurely urinated on the porch before his and the woman’s eyes. She looked at the salesman, making no effort to clean up the mess, and said, “Well, at least he didn’t do it inside the house.” She then turned around and walked back into the house.
Tony thought Alicia, one of his classmates at school, was just beautiful, albeit a little shy. They were both 14. He finally mustered up the courage to go over, talk to her, and ask her if she would like to go to the school dance next Friday night. She shrank back from him as if she was terrified and said, in a whisper, that she couldn’t possibly go. She added apologetically that her mother worked Friday nights and her “Daddy” always took her to the movies. That struck Tony as odd. However, he wasn’t up to fighting with parents. Alicia was cute, but she wasn’t the only girl around.
Each of these vignettes illustrates children who are being maltreated. Children can be abused or ne-glected in a number of ways. The umbrella term that includes all of them is child maltreatment. Maltreat-ment includes physical abuse; being given inadequate care and nourishment; deprivation of adequate medical care; insufficient encouragement to attend school consistently; exploitation by being forced to work too hard or too long; “exposure to unwhole-some or demoralizing circumstances”; sexual abuse; and emotional abuse and neglect (Kadushin & Martin, 1988, p. 226). Definitions used by legal and social service agencies vary from locality to locality and state to state. However, most definitions include these eight aspects of maltreatment.
Many books have been written about each form of maltreatment. It is beyond the scope of this book to address them all in great depth. Usually, however, all can be clustered under two headings: child abuse (which includes both physical and sexual abuse) and child neglect. Child maltreatment is a critical issue for social workers to understand. They need to be
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214 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
aware of the clues that maltreatment is occurring. One screening tool, the ACES (Adverse Childhood Experiences), helps identify the number of traumas (including child maltreatment, parental incarcera-tion and/or domestic violence) a child has experi-enced. It has been found that high ACE scores have been linked to adverse health outcomes, both physi-cally and emotionally. Social workers also need to understand the dynamics of how child victims and their abusers behave in order to assess a situation and make treatment plans. Here, we will discuss the incidence and demographics of child maltreatment; the definitions of physical abuse, neglect, psycholog-ical maltreatment, and sexual abuse; the characteris-tics of victims and abusers; and some basic treatment approaches. Because of its distinctive characteristics and problematic features, sexual abuse will be dis-cussed separately.
Incidence of Child MaltreatmentThe actual number of child abuse and neglect cases is difficult to determine. Definitions for who can and can’t be included in specific categories vary. How cases are reported and how data are gathered also vary dramatically. One thing is certain: the chances are that any reported figures reflect a small percent-age of actual cases. Indications are that vast num-bers of cases remain unreported.
In 2014, there were an estimated 3.6 million re-ferrals, involving 6.6 million children, made to child protective services (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2016). Of these, 2.2 million refer-rals were screened in, indicating an investigation for abuse or neglect needed to occur (U.S. Depart-ment of Health and Human Services, 2016). It was determined that 702,000 cases of maltreatment (75% neglect and 17% physical abuse) had occurred, resulting in 1,580 fatalities (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2016). With the use of the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System (NCANDS), which is an electronic national data collection system enacted by the Children’s Bureau in Administration on Children, Youth and Families, it is now easier to track this data (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2016).
Physical Child AbusePhysical abuse can be defined very generally as “non-accidental injury inflicted on a child,” usually
“by a caregiver, other adults, or sometimes, an older child” (Crosson-Tower, 2013, p. 180). Some defini-tions focus on whether the alleged abuser’s purpose is to intentionally harm the child. Other definitions ignore the intent and instead emphasize the poten-tial or actual harm done to the child. However, there often is a very fine line between physical abuse and parental discipline. Historically, parents have had the right to bring up their children as they see fit. This has included administering punishment to curb behavior when they thought it was necessary. Con-sider a father who beats his 13-year-old daughter on the buttocks with a belt because her math grade dropped over the course of a year from an A to a C. Is that his right, or is that child abuse?
Spotlight 4.5 raises some questions about what is considered discipline versus what constitutes abuse.
Angry outbursts and loss of emotional control on the part of parents can result in child abuse.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 215
Characteristics of Physically Abused VictimsBoth physical indicators and behavioral indicators provide clues that a child is being physically abused. Physical indicators can be broken down into six ba-sic categories.
1. Bruises. Bruises on any infant should be suspect. Infants are not yet mobile. Therefore, it’s not likely that they can bruise themselves. Bruises in unusual places or forming unusual patterns may indicate physical abuse. Bruises that take a rec-ognizable shape such as a hand mark or a belt mark should be noted. Finally, bruises that dis-play a variety of colors may portray abuse. This may be an indication that a series of bruises have been received over time. On lighter-skinned peo-ple, bruises usually progress from an initial bright red to blue to blackish-purple within the first day; they become shaded with a dark green color after about 6 days and finally turn pale green or yellow after 5 to 10 days.
2. Lacerations. Cuts, scrapes, or scratches, especially if they occur frequently or their origin is poorly explained, may indicate physical abuse. Lacera-tions on the face and genitalia should be noted. Bite marks also may indicate abuse.
3. Fractures. Bone fractures and other skeletal in-juries may indicate abuse. Strangely twisted
fractures and multiple fractures are especially telltale signs. Infants’ fractures may be the result of abuse. Additional indicators are joint disloca-tions and injuries in which the periosteum, the thin membrane covering the bone, is detached.
4. Burns. Burns, especially ones that take odd forms or are in patterns, may indicate abuse. Children have been burned by cigarettes and ropes (from being tied up and confined). Burns that occur on inaccessible portions of the body such as the stomach, genitals, or soles of the feet are clues to abuse. Patterned burns may indicate that the child has been burned with some hot utensil. Sac-like burns result when a hand or foot has been sub-merged into a hot liquid. A doughnut-shaped burn will occur on the buttocks if a child has been immersed in very hot water. The central unburned area results from where the child’s skin touched the bottom of the receptacle holding the water.
5. Head injuries. Head injuries that can indicate abuse include skull fractures, loss of hair due to vigorous pulling, and subdural hematomas (blood collected beneath the outer covering of the brain after strenuous shaking or hitting). Black eyes should be suspect. Retinas may detach or hemorrhage if a child is shaken vigorously.
6. Internal injuries. Children have received injuries to their spleen, kidneys, and intestines due to
Diverse cultural contexts: Discipline or abuse?Crosson-Tower (2013) reflects on some of the issues concerning the cultural context of abuse versus parental discipline:
Some cultures have customs or practices that child protection [agencies] would consider abusive. For example, some Vietnamese families, in a ritual called cao
gio, rub their children with a coin heated to the point that it leaves burn marks. It is an intentional act, but designed, in that culture, to cure a variety of ills. Do the parents’ good intentions exempt this practice from being considered abusive? Similarly, the use of corporal punishment is sanctioned in many Hispanic cultures, but is seen as abusive in this culture when it becomes excessive. Some child protection advocates adopt the “When in Rome do as the Romans do” attitude that says
that minorities must abide by the laws of the culture in which they now reside. One Puerto Rican social worker, working in a predominantly Hispanic section of New York City, vehemently disagreed: “Yes, there are laws, but those laws were made by Anglos. Is it fair to deprive new immigrants of everything including their customs? Maybe the laws should be changed?” The reality is that if a child is reported as being harmed for whatever reason, a child protection agency will usually investigate. If the reason is one of culture, this will be considered. (p. 180)
Social workers should orient themselves to learning from their clients about clients’ cultures. This is a career-long process, as the extent of variations in values and customs is infinite.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 4.5
EP 2aEP 2c
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216 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
hitting and kicking. The vena cava, the large vein by which blood is brought from the lower extrem-ities to the heart, may be ruptured. Peritonitis, in which the lining of the abdominal cavity becomes inflamed, can be another indicator of abuse.
Some of the major questions to ask yourself if you think a child may have been physically abused include the following:
● Does this child get hurt too often for someone his or her age?
● Does the child have multiple injuries? ● Do the injuries occur in patterns, assume recog-
nizable shapes, or look like some of the injuries described earlier?
● Are the injuries such that they don’t seem possible for a child at that stage of development?
● Do the explanations given for the injuries make sense?
If something doesn’t seem right to you, some-thing may be wrong. If a little voice in the back of your mind is saying, “Oh-oh, that certainly is odd,” pay attention. It might be a clue to abuse.
In addition to physical indicators, behavioral in-dicators provide a second major dimension of clues to physical abuse. A physically abused child tends to exhibit behavioral extremes. Virtually all chil-dren may display these extreme behaviors at one
time or another. However, the frequency and sever-ity of these behaviors in abused children are clearly notable. At least three categories, plus a variety of specific behavioral indicators, have been established (Crosson-Tower, 2013, 2014; Kolko, 2002; Runyon & Urquiza, 2011):
1. Extremely passive, accommodating, submis-sive behaviors aimed at preserving a low profile and avoiding potential conflict with parents that might lead to abuse. Abused children can be ex-ceptionally calm and docile. They have learned this behavior in order to avoid any possible conflict with the abusive parent. If they are in-visible, the parent may not be provoked. Many times abused children will even avoid playing be-cause it draws too much attention to themselves. This behavioral pattern is sometimes called hypervigilance.
2. Notably aggressive behaviors and marked overt hostility toward others, caused by rage and frus-tration at not getting needs met. Some physically abused children assume an opposite approach to the overly passive manner identified earlier. These children are so desperately in need of at-tention that they will try almost anything to get it. Even if they can provoke only negative atten-tion from their parents, their aggressive behavior is reinforced.
Shaken Baby SyndromeShaken baby syndrome or abusive head trauma is defined as an inflicted injury on infants and young children typically from violent shaking or impacting of the head of an infant or small child (National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome, 2016). When shaken violently, blood vessels in an infant’s brain may tear causing brain bleeding. Other results can be brain bruising, skull fractures, tearing of the retina, and spinal cord damage (National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome, 2016). Symptoms include irritability, difficulty staying awake, breathing problems, vomiting, seizures, paralysis, or coma (Mayo, 2014). Outcomes for victims of shaken baby syndrome can range greatly, from significant to milder (including learning disabilities, personality changes, blindness, seizure disorders, or death). Although legal courts have questioned the validity of shaken baby syndrome (Bazelon, 2011), many
medical professional organizations (including the American Academy of Pediatrics, The World Health Organization, Center for Disease Control and Prevention, and the American Association of Neurological Surgeons) recognize the syndrome and believe prevention is the key to addressing the problem (National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome, 2016). The main way to prevent this type of injury is through educating parents about the dangers of shaking their baby and providing support to parents when they are feeling frustrated or upset with their child. Programs such as PURPLE help parents understand normal infant crying and reduce shaken baby syndrome (National Center on Shaken Baby Syndrome, 2016). It is important that parents receive education on this topic to stop the syndrome from ever occurring.
HIGHLIGHT 4.3
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 217
3. Developmental lags. Because abused children are forced to direct their attention and energy to cop-ing with their abusive situation, they frequently show developmental delays. These may appear in the form of language delays, poorly developed social skills for their age level, or lags in motor development.
Ethical Questions 4.8
EP 1
Do parents have the right to spank their children? When does discipline become abuse?
Characteristics of AbusersThe dynamics behind child physical abuse are com-plex and varied. However, the general characteristics of it tend to fall within six major domains (Crosson-Tower, 2013, 2014; Kolko, 2002; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013; Runyon & Urquiza, 2011). Although no one person may have all the problems mentioned, a person will likely experience some.
Need for Personal Support and Nurturance A ba-sic quality characterizing abusers is low self-esteem. Their emotional needs often remain unfulfilled from their own childhoods. Because their own needs were not met, they are unable to meet the needs of their children. They often invite rejection and hostil-ity because they have little confidence in their own abilities. They don’t know how to reach out for sup-port. On the one hand, they often feel they are unde-serving. On the other hand, they still have desperate needs for human support.
Social Isolation Perpetrators’ own self-confidence may be low. They feel that no one will like them, so they isolate themselves. They reject attention, even though they need others for emotional support. They fear rejection, so they don’t try to reach out to others. As a result, when normal everyday stresses build up, they have no one to help them cope.
Communication and Relationship Difficulties Re-lationships that abusers do have with family, a significant other, and others are often stormy. Com-munication may be difficult, hostile, and ineffective. Low self-esteem can also affect the relationship with
a partner or a significant other. Abusers may not know how to get their needs met. They may allow their disappointments and anger to build up because they don’t know how to express these feelings more appropriately to others. They may feel isolated and alone even within a marriage or partnership. Chil-dren may become easy targets for parents who can’t communicate with each other. Children may provide a conduit for the expression of violence and anger that are really directed at a spouse or a significant other.
Poor Parenting Skills Many abusive people don’t know how to raise their children in a nurturant fam-ily environment. Their own family of origin’s envi-ronment may have been hostile and abusive. They may never have observed nurturant behavior on the part of their own parents and caregivers. They couldn’t learn what they weren’t taught.
Additionally, their expectations for what consti-tutes inappropriate behavior at the various devel-opment levels may be lacking. For instance, their demands on the child for behavioral submission and even perfection may be very inappropriate. Parent-ing behavior may be inconsistent, hostile, or lacking in positive interaction.
Poor General Coping Skills Perpetrators may be unable to cope with stress, lashing out at their chil-dren instead. They may lack anger management skills. In addition to not knowing how to meet their own emotional needs, they may not have learned to separate their feelings and emotions from their be-havior. Therefore, if they get mad, they don’t talk about it; they hit.
Another unlearned skill involves the appropriate delineation of responsibility. Perpetrators tend to blame others for their mistakes. For example, it’s the child’s fault that he got hit and broke his arm, be-cause he was naughty.
They may also lack decision-making or problem-solving skills. Abusers tend to have little confidence in their own ability, and so have little faith in their own judgment. They have difficulty articulating and evaluating the pros and cons of their alternatives, and are indecisive.
In addition, abusers often fail to learn how to de-lay their own gratification. The situation here and now becomes all-important. If a child misbehaves, a kick will take care of it immediately. If their stress level is too high, abusers need immediate relief. They
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218 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
focus on the moment and have trouble looking at what the consequences of their behavior will be in the future.
Extreme External Stress and Life Crises Child abuse is related to lower socioeconomic status. Poverty causes stress. The abuser, who may lack coping strategies anyway, may feel isolated and in-competent. Additional life crises like job loss, illness, a marital or family dispute, or even a child’s behavior problem may push people over the brink so that they cannot cope. They may take out their stress on the easiest, most available targets—their children.
Child NeglectBecause neglect involves the absence of resources in-stead of the presence of something that is negative, it is difficult to define. Every social environment is dif-ferent. When does a family environment cease being adequate and instead display neglect?
Consider the following case examples:
● Mark, who is 8 years old, is left to care for his 3-year-old sister, Maria, while their parents go out.
● Margaret fails to provide medication for her 10-year-old daughter, who has a seizure disorder.
● Jonathan refuses to allow his 16-year-old son into the family’s home and tells him not to return.
● Tyrone and Rachel live with their three children in a home that is thick with dirt and dust, smells of urine, and has nothing but rotting food in the refrigerator.
● Alicia leaves her 10-month-old infant unattended in a bathtub full of water. (Barnett, Miller-Perrin, & Perrin, 2011, p. 84)
Child neglect is a caregiver’s “failure to meet a child’s basic needs”; this may involve depriving a child of physical, emotional, medical, mental health, or educational necessities (Erickson & Egeland, 2011; Shireman, 2003, p. 32). Whereas child abuse involves harming a child through actions, child ne-glect causes a child harm by not doing what is nec-essary. Neglect occurs when children are not given what they need to survive and thrive.
Two of the most frequent aspects of neglect in-volve physical neglect and inadequate supervision. Physical neglect is the “failure to protect a child from harm or danger and provide for the child’s basic ne-cessities including adequate food, shelter, and cloth-ing” (Erickson & Egeland, 2011, p. 105). Inadequate
supervision “refers to situations in which children are without a caretaker or the caretaker is inattentive or unsuitable, and therefore the children are in danger of harming themselves or possibly others” (Downs, Moore, & McFadden, 2009, p. 209). Children need someone to direct them, care for them, support their daily activities, and give them emotional support. In-adequate supervision includes psychological neglect, discussed later in the chapter.
Sometimes neglect is related to poverty. Many neglectful parents don’t have the resources to take care of themselves or their children. For instance, one woman who was charged with child neglect de-scribed her living conditions to a judge. She lived in a small, third-floor flat without hot water. She said, “It is an awful place to live. The wallpaper is in strips, the floor board is cracked. The baby is al-ways getting splinters in his hands. The bathroom is on the floor above and two other families use it. The kitchen is on the first floor. I share it with another woman. I have no place to keep food. We buy for one meal at a time” (Hancock, 1963, p. 5).
A young social worker recounts a visit to a family suspected of child neglect:
It was my first visit to the Petersons’ home, or should I say second floor fiat. The house was in a very poor area in the inner city of Milwaukee. I was supposed to do an initial family assessment. Both parents and three small children were there. The house was filthy. Dirty laundry was heaped in piles on the living room floor. The walls were smeared with grease. Wads of dust rolled along the floor; if they had been at my apartment, I would’ve called them dinosaur dust bunnies.
The flat was small. The only furniture I could see included two double beds in the tiny living room, and a cheap, old dinette and appliances in the kitchen. The family asked me to sit at the old kitchen table. The chairs were black; I had to restrain myself from wiping one off with a Kleenex before I sat down. But I didn’t want to offend my clients. I was clearly aware of my middle-class bias already. None of the children were wearing shoes, which might not be too unusual for summer. However, black dirt streaked all of the children’s white arms, legs, feet, hands, and faces. Their hair was dirty and snarled.
As we talked, the parents asked me if I’d like a cup of coffee. The coffee maker in front of me was filthy as was the cup they gave me. It matched
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 219
the dirty dishes heaped high in the sink. Again, not wanting to offend my clients, I gratefully accepted the coffee. As we talked, I accepted the second cup of coffee and then a third. That was my mistake. Suddenly it occurred to me I desperately needed to use the bathroom. I wondered where it was. I asked if I could, and Mr. Peterson said, “Sure, just a minute.” He stood up from the table, picked up a door that had been leaning against the wall around the corner, pointed to a literally open door out of my direct view around the refrigerator. Mortified as I was, I stepped into the bathroom. He laid the door in place (there were no hinges) and said he’d hold it until I was finished. Well, what else was there to do at that point? After I finished, I meekly said, “I’m through,” at which point he picked up the door and put it back in its place leaning against the wall. We continued with the interview. One thing is for sure; my coffee drinking behavior on home visits will never be the same!
Characteristics of Neglected ChildrenEach of us has infinite needs. To define and catego-rize all that we need to maintain physical and emo-tional health would be an awesome task. This is why neglect is often difficult to define for any specific family situation. Nonetheless, we will present 12 gen-eral indicators of child neglect here (Barnett et al., 2011; Crosson-Tower, 2014; Erickson & Egeland, 2011; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013; Zuravin & Taylor, 1987). They provide at least a basis for assessment of situations in which neglect may be involved. As with the characteristics of physically abused children, it should be noted that not all of these characteristics apply to all neglected children. However, any one of them might be an indicator of neglect.
1. Physical health care. Illnesses are not attended to, and proper dental care is not maintained.
2. Mental health care. Children’s mental health problems are either ignored or left unattended. Sometimes caregivers refuse “to comply with recommended therapeutic interventions for a child with a serious emotional or behavioral dis-order” (Erickson & Egeland, 2011, p. 105).
3. Educational neglect. “Parents fail to comply with laws that require children to attend school” (Erickson & Egeland, 2011, p. 104). Excessive truancy and tardiness without adequate or ap-propriate excuses may indicate neglect. This of-ten concerns a “parent [who] has been informed
of the problem and does not take steps to rem-edy it”; educational neglect also involves “situ-ations in which parents refuse to permit their children with special needs to receive the ser-vices they need” (Downs et al., 2009, p. 209).
4. Supervision. Children are often or almost al-ways left alone without adequate supervision. Very young children or even infants may be left unattended. Another common situation is that very young children are left in the supervision of other children who themselves are too young to assume such responsibility. A third common situation occurs when unsupervised children get involved in activities in which they may harm themselves. For example, we periodically read in the newspaper that a young, unsupervised child plays with matches, starts a fire, and burns down the house or apartment building and usually dies in the fire. A fourth example involves chil-dren who don’t receive adequate supervision to get them to school on time, or at all.
5. Abandonment and substitute child care. The most blatant form of neglect is abandonment, when parents leave children alone and unattended. A related scenario involves parents who fail to return when they’re supposed to, thereby leav-ing designated care providers in the lurch, not knowing what to do with the children.
6. Housing hazards. Housing may have inadequate heat, ventilation, or safety features. Dangerous substances such as drugs or weapons may be left in children’s easy reach. Electrical fixtures may not be up to code and therefore may be dangerous.
7. Household sanitation. Food may be spoiled. The home may be filled with garbage or excrement. Plumbing might not work or be backed up.
8. Personal hygiene. Children’s clothing may be ripped, filthy, and threadbare. Their hair may be unkempt and dirty. They themselves may be un-bathed and odorous. They may be plagued with head lice.
9. Nutrition. Children who frequently complain that they’re hungry and search for food may be victims of neglect. Children receiving food that provides them with inadequate nutrition may be neglected. Significant delays in development resulting from malnutrition may also be a clue to neglect.
10. “Social and attachment difficulties” (Barnett et al., 2011, p. 96). Children may have problems
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2 2 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
interacting with parents, and they may fail to maintain secure attachment relationships (dis-cussed in Chapter 3) in which they trust parents and respond positively and consistently to their parents’ presence and interaction (Erickson & Egeland, 2011). Children may act “passive and withdrawn” with parents or the “parent exhib-its low sensitivity to and involvement with [the] child” (Bamett et al., 2011, p. 96). Children may also display problems in peer relationships, including “deficits in prosocial behavior, so-cial withdrawal, isolation, [and] few reciprocal friendships” (Barnett et al., 2011, p. 96).
11. “Cognitive and academic deficits” (Barnett et al., 2011, p. 96). Children may exhibit language defi-cits, poor academic achievement, low grades, deficits in intelligence, decreased creativity, and difficulties in problem solving (Barnett et al., 2011). One study found that neglected children tend to experience greater cognitive and aca-demic problems than do physically abused chil-dren (Hildyard & Wolfe, 2002).
12. “Emotional and behavioral problems” (Barnett et al., 2011, p. 97). Neglected children may ex-hibit indifference, withdrawal and isolation, low self-esteem, behavioral and verbal aggression, difficulties in paying attention, and psychiatric symptoms such as those characterizing anxiety or depression (Barnett et al., 2011).
Two pronounced physical conditions that can result from extreme neglect are nonorganic failure-to-thrive syndrome and psychosocial dwarfism (Crosson-Tower, 2014). Nonorganic failure-to-thrive syndrome (NFTT) occurs in infancy. It is character-ized by infants who are “below the fifth percentile in weight and often in height” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 70). This means that 95 percent of all other in-fants that age weigh more. Additionally, the infant must have had normal health at one time. Lags in psychomotor development are also apparent.
Psychosocial dwarfism (PSD) can affect chil-dren age 18 months to 16 years. In these children, “emotional deprivation promotes abnormally low growth. PSD children are also below the fifth per-centile in weight and height, exhibit retarded skeletal maturation, and a variety of behavioral problems” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 71). Additionally, they tend to have speech difficulties and problems in their so-cial interactions.
Characteristics of Neglectful ParentsCrosson-Tower (2013) explains: “Parents who ne-glect were often neglected themselves as children. For them, it is a learned way of life. Their child-hoods have produced in them nothing but anger and indifference. Their adult lives are dedicated to meet-ing the needs that were not met for them as they were growing up” (p. 186).
Mothers who neglect their children can be divided into five basic types (Crosson-Tower, 2013; Polansky, Chalmers, Buttenwieser, & Williams, 1991; Polansky, Holly, & Polansky, 1975):
1. The indifferent, lethargic mother is best described as numb. She has little or no emotional response and has little energy to do anything.
2. The impulsive, irresponsible mother treats her children inconsistently and often inattentively. She has poor impulse control and lacks coping strategies.
3. The depressed mother is reacting to life’s unhappy circumstances by giving up. Unlike the indifferent mother, she experiences extreme emotion by be-ing depressed and miserable.
4. Mothers with intellectual disabilities neglect chil-dren because of their cognitive inabilities and a lack of the adequate support they need to help them as-sume their responsibilities. Note that not all women with intellectual disabilities neglect their children.
5. Mothers with serious mental illness, such as psy-chosis, are unable to function because of bizarre thought processes, delusions, or extreme anxiety.
Ethical Questions 4.9
EP 1
Should parents who neglect their children be punished or receive treatment? How should this be accomplished?
Psychological MaltreatmentPsychological maltreatment is illustrated in the fol-lowing case scenarios:
● A mother locks her 3-year-old son in a dark closet as a method of punishment.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 21
● A father shackles his 7-year-old son to his bed at night to prevent him from getting out of bed repeatedly.
● A mother says to her daughter, “You are the stu-pidest, laziest kid on earth. I can’t believe you’re my child. They must have switched babies on me at the hospital.”
● A father tells his daughter that he will kill her new puppy if she or the puppy misbehaves.
● A mother and father provide alcohol to their 16-year-old son and his friends at a party.
● A mother refuses to look at or touch her child. ● A father repeatedly states to one of his children,
“I don’t love you.” (Barnett et al., 2011, p. 106)
Psychological (or emotional) maltreatment in-cludes both psychological abuse and psychologi-cal neglect. Psychological abuse, like other abuse, is more aggressively active and negative. It is “belittling, humiliating, rejecting, undermining a child’s self-esteem, and generally not [conducive to] creating a positive atmosphere for a child” (Cohen, 1992, p. 175). Psychological neglect, like other forms of neglect, in-volves passively failing to meet children’s needs. It is the “passive or passive/aggressive inattention to the child’s emotional needs, nurturing, or emotional well-being” (Brassard, Germaine, & Hart, 1987, p. 267). Parents may deprive an infant of needed holding and attention or may simply ignore children who are in desperate need of emotional involvement. Both emo-tional neglect and abuse focus on interfering with a child’s psychological development and well-being.
At least five basic categories of behavior are in-volved in psychological maltreatment (Barnett et al., 2011; Crosson-Tower, 2014; Downs et al. 2009; Garbarino, Guttmann, & Seeley, 1986). They are summarized as follows:
1. Rejection includes “abandoning the child, fail-ing to acknowledge the child, scapegoating the child [i.e., placing unjustified blame on a child for some behavior or problem or criticizing a child unfairly], and verbally humiliating the child.” A parent might emphasize how stupid a child is in front of her friends or neighbors.
2. Isolation includes “keeping the child away from a variety of appropriate relationships.” It might involve not allowing a child to play normally with peers or seeing other close family members. It might also involve locking a child in a closet for days, months, or years.
3. Terrorizing involves “threatening and scaring the child.” A parent might threaten to kill a child’s beloved pet if he doesn’t do the dishes. Or a care-giver might hold a child outside a second-story window and threaten to drop her if she doesn’t start “acting her age.”
4. Ignoring involves failing to respond to a child or simply pretending that the child isn’t there. Par-ents watching television might ignore children’s pleas for help with homework or requests for food, thereby forcing children to take care of themselves.
5. Corrupting includes “encouraging or supporting illegal or deviant behaviors.” A caregiver might force a child to shoplift or drink beer (Winton & Mara, 2001, pp. 90–91).
Characteristics of Psychologically Maltreated ChildrenExtensive research reveals that a multitude of prob-lems in adulthood are related to psychological maltreatment during childhood. These potential effects include low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, a negative view of life, increased suicide poten-tial, emotional instability, difficulties with impulse control, substance abuse, eating disorders, relation-ship difficulties, violence, criminal behavior, school problems, and poor performance on intelligence and achievement tests (Hart, Brassard, Binggeli, & Davidson, 2002; Hart et al., 2011).
Characteristics of PerpetratorsLike other parents and caregivers who abuse or ne-glect, those who psychologically maltreat then chil-dren usually suffer serious emotional problems or deficits themselves (Crosson-Tower, 2014; Shireman, 2003). They may find themselves in a marriage or a partnership that is disappointing or bland, and may seek easy targets (namely, children) for venting their anger and frustration. Like other people who mal-treat children, perpetrators may lack coping skills to deal with their problems and emotional issues. Their own emotional needs may not have been met in childhood. Their own parents may have lacked nurturing skills and, thus, failed to teach perpetra-tors how to be good parents. They may also be deal-ing with personal problems such as mental illness or substance disorders (Barnett et al., 2011).
Macro-System Responses to Child MaltreatmentMacro-system responses concern how society ad-dresses a problem like child maltreatment. Such
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2 2 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
responses addressed here include Child Protective Services, the social work role in treatment, and treat-ment by the courts.
A Macro-System Response: Child Protective ServicesAn abused or neglected child is usually referred to a Child Protective Services (CPS) unit. CPS agen-cies are governmental units that (1) receive reports of suspected child maltreatment, (2) investigate these reports, (3) assess the extent that children are being harmed or are at risk of being harmed, (4) determine how safe the home environment is or if placement outside the home is necessary, and (5) provide or ar-range for the provision of necessary and appropriate social, medical, legal, placement, and other services.
Although there is some variation from one local or state CPS program to another, the following themes reflect a common philosophy (Pecora et al., 2010):
● A safe and permanent home is the best place for children to grow up. . .
● Most parents want to be good parents and have the strength and capacity, when adequately sup-ported, to care for their children and keep them safe. . .
● Families who need assistance from CPS programs are diverse in terms of family structure, culture, race, religion, economic status, beliefs, values, and lifestyles. . .
● CPS efforts are most likely to succeed when clients are involved and actively participate as partners in the process. . .
● Services must be individualized and tailored. . . ● CPS approaches should be family centered.
(p. 150)
CPS workers are usually employed by state or county public agencies whose designated task it is to protect children from harm. During the intervention process, CPS workers help families establish treatment plans to address and remedy problems. In the event that problems cannot be resolved, CPS workers try to develop alternative long-term or permanent place-ment of the children. CPS staff may work with the courts to declare that children require protection and to determine appropriate safe placement for them.
Treatment of Physical Abuse, Neglect, and Psychological Maltreatment: Social Work RoleTreatment of physical abuse, neglect, and psycho-logical maltreatment follows the same sequential
steps used in other areas of social work intervention. These include receipt of the initial referral, gather-ing of information about the case through a social study, assessment of the situation (including safety, risk, and family assessment), case planning includ-ing goal setting, provision of treatment, evaluation of the effects of treatment, and termination of the case (Pecora et al., 2010). Assessment focuses on many of the dynamics of the case that we’ve already discussed. Questions a practitioner should address include the following:
1. “Is the child at risk from abuse or neglect and to what degree?
2. What is causing the problem?3. What are the strengths or protective factors that
could be built on with services to alleviate the problem?
4. Is the home a safe environment or must the child be placed?” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 216)
Certain factors affect risk (Crosson-Tower, 2014). These include the following:
● Child factors: Children who are younger or have intellectual or other disabilities are at greater risk.
● Caregiver factors: “Initially, the worker notes the level of cooperation and capabilities shown by the caregivers, remembering to frame this within a cultural context. Parents who recognize there is a problem present a better prognosis and less risk to the children than those who demonstrate hos-tility or refuse to cooperate. The physical, men-tal, and emotional capabilities of the parent—as evidenced by their expectations of the child, abil-ity to protect the child, and the ability to control anger and other impulses—indicate the degree of risk to the victim. Parents who are unaware of children’s needs or demonstrate poor judgment or concept of reality present a high risk to the de-pendent child” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 220).
● Abuser factors: Perpetrators who have a history of irrational, abusive behavior and who harm the child intentionally increase risk. Perpetrators who have greater access to victims also increase the risk factor.
● Environmental factors: “The incident itself is weighed in the light of future potential harm to the child. The worker determines the likelihood of permanent harm, the location of the injury, the previous history of abuse or neglect, and the
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 2 3
physical conditions of the home. Environmental factors provide additional information. Parents who do not use support systems place the child at higher risk, for example, than those who can reach out for help. The degree of stress in the home also affects the likelihood of abuse. Death, divorce, incarceration of a parent, unemployment, career change, residence change, and birth of a child can all place a child at greater risk. Again, all these factors must be evaluated within a cultural context” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, pp. 220–221).
General treatment goals include stopping the maltreatment and strengthening the family enough to keep it together and, hopefully, have it thrive. Specific treatment modalities may include family therapy, involvement in support groups (e.g., Par-ents Anonymous), couple’s counseling, or individual counseling, depending on the family’s and the indi-vidual family members’ needs.
Parents may need to learn how to identify their feelings and express them appropriately. They may need to learn how to communicate their needs to others and, in two-parent homes, to each other. They might require building their self-concepts. They may also need to master effective child management techniques in order to gain control and avoid abu-sive situations. Being taught how to provide a nur-turant family environment for their children and improve their parent–child relationships might also be necessary.
Many times outside resources are helpful. Day care for children can provide some respite for par-ents and time for themselves. Homemaker service provides training in household management and makes available to parents an individual to give sup-port and nurturance. Parental aides can work in homes, form relationships with parents, and model how to nurture children as well as effective child management techniques.
Physically abused children also need treatment, including medical services for physical damage. Chil-dren suffering from developmental delays may need special therapy or remedial help. Exposure to ap-propriate adult role models through day care is often used. Organizations such as Big Brothers and Big Sisters provide another means of support.
Individual or group counseling may be needed for the maltreated child. At least three major cat-egories of victims’ needs should be addressed
(Crosson-Tower, 2014). These categories relate directly to the characteristics of maltreated chil-dren that we’ve discussed. The first need involves improving the victim’s relationships with other people, including both peers and adults. Their old behavior patterns most likely involved either defen-sive withdrawal or inappropriate aggression. New, more effective social interaction techniques need to be established. The second need involves helping victims learn how to express their feelings. Some maltreated children withhold and suppress their feel-ings to avoid confrontations; other abused children have never learned how to control their aggressive impulses. The third need concerns the maltreated child’s self-concept. For the many reasons we’ve dis-cussed, maltreated children have a poor opinion of themselves and have little confidence in their own abilities.
A Macro-System Response: Involvement of the CourtsCourts become involved in maltreatment cases “when the child is in imminent danger or the par-ents are unable or unwilling to cooperate with the social service agency in improving the care of their children”; court involvement also can occur when parents are incapacitated for some reason, abandon children, fail to provide adequate medical treatment for serious health issues, severely physically hurt or even kill the child, or sexually abuse children and are subject to legal prosecution (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 248). Court involvement is a very difficult and scary process for both the family and victim. Juvenile court procedures vary from state to state. However, most involve three processes: the petition, adjudica-tion, and disposition.
The petition is a written complaint submitted to the court that the alleged abuse or neglect has oc-curred. Adjudication is a hearing where the alleged abuse or neglect is proven or discounted. Both par-ents and victim are represented by separate legal counsel. The disposition involves a hearing in which the court determines what is to be done with the child. This is a separate hearing from the adjudica-tion, where it is determined whether the abuse or neglect actually happened. The court process is com-plex and often lengthy. Many variations, including additional investigations and settlements, are pos-sible. (See Crosson-Tower, 2014, for a detailed de-scription of the process.) Protective service workers
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2 2 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and other social workers are frequently called upon to provide input to aid in the court’s decision. Such input often is very influential and can have a direct impact on what happens to a child.
Sexual AbuseSexual abuse is “any sexual activity with a child where consent is not or cannot be given . . . This in-cludes sexual contact that is accomplished by force or threat of force, regardless of the age of the partic-ipants, and all sexual contact between an adult and a child, regardless of whether there is deception or the child understands the sexual nature of the activ-ity. Sexual contact between an older and a younger child also can be abusive if there is a significant dis-parity in age, development, or size, rendering the younger child incapable of giving informed consent. The sexually abusive acts may include sexual pene-tration, sexual touching, or noncontact sexual acts such as exposure or voyeurism” (the act of gaining sexual gratification from watching people who are naked or engaging in sexual activities) (Berliner & Elliott, 2002, p. 55). Incest, a special form of sexual abuse, involves “sexual activities between a child and a relative—a parent, stepparent, parent’s live-in partner or lover, foster parent, sibling, cousin, uncle, aunt, or grandparent” (McAnulty & Burnette, 2003, p. 486). “Sexual activities” can include a wide vari-ety of sexual behaviors, including “pornographic photography, sexual gestures, parental exposure of genitalia, fondling, petting, fellatio, cunnilingus, in-tercourse, and any and all varieties of sexual con-tact” (Crosson-Tower, 2014; Mayer, 1983, p. 4).
Specific statutes addressing definitions of and punishments for sexual abuse vary widely by state. Concerning the incidence of sexual abuse, it is very difficult to get accurate statistics for a num-ber of reasons. For one thing, many experts believe that cases of sexual abuse are vastly underreported (Berliner, 2011; Berliner & Elliot, 2002; Crosson-Tower, 2014). It is also very difficult for children to report sexual abuse. Perpetrators emphasize secrecy and blame the victim. Often, if victims do try to tell someone, that person is uncomfortable talking about it and may avoid the subject altogether. Definitions of sexual abuse vary widely, so it’s difficult to col-lect and congregate data. Research estimates indicate that from about 19 to 22 percent of all women and 7 to 9 percent of all men state that they were sexually
abused as children (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Rathus et al., 2014).
The Dynamics of Child Sexual AbuseA major myth involved in child sexual abuse is that children should be warned about strangers. They’re told that they should not get into cars when strang-ers offer them lollipops and they should not talk to strange men who are hiding behind park bushes. The reality is that children are in much greater danger from people who are close to them, from people they trust.
Children are easy victims for sexual abuse. Be-cause of the anxiety most people harbor about sexuality in general, children have little informa-tion about sex. They have limited life experience upon which to base judgments. Thus, they can eas-ily be misled and tricked. They are small compared to adults and are easily intimidated. Adults, in some ways, are godlike to children. Adults tell them what to do, when to go to bed, when they can cross the street, and if they can go to McDonald’s. Children are oriented toward obeying adults, and most chil-dren want to please them, especially those adults who control their access to being loved, having food and shelter, and feeling safe.
Some data indicate that the “vast majority of of-fenders are male, although boys are more likely than girls to be abused by women (20 percent vs. 5 per-cent)” (Berliner, 2011, p. 219). An estimated 60 to 70 percent of sexual abuse occurs within the fam-ily (Crosson-Tower, 2013). This does not mean that the remaining 40 percent is perpetrated by strangers. Rather, much extra-familial abuse is done by others who are close to the family and trusted by the child. Only 5 to 15 percent of sexual abuse is committed by strangers (Berliner, 2011). When sexual abuse is perpetrated by someone outside the family, that person is usually called a pedophile (someone who prefers children for sexual gratification). Because of its prevalence, we focus on incest in the following discussion.
Progression of the incestuous relationship is usually gradual. It may appear innocent enough at first. For instance, the adult might appear nude or undress before a child. It then progresses to greater and greater intimacy. There are five basic phases to sexual abuse (Crosson-Tower, 2014, pp. 114–115). First comes the engagement phase. Here, the per-petrator will experiment with the child to see how
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 2 5
close he can get and how the child will react. The second phase is the sexual interaction phase. Sexual activity in various degrees of intimacy occurs dur-ing this phase. Often the longer this phase lasts, the more intimate the abuser becomes with the victim. The third phase is one of secrecy. Sexual activity has already occurred, so the abuser will use some ma-nipulations to hold the victim ensnared in the abuse. For instance, the perpetrator might say, “Don’t you tell your mommy; she won’t like you anymore,” or “This is our special secret because I love you so very much,” or “If you tell anybody, I’ll punish you.” Threats and guilt are used to maintain the secret. The fourth phase is the disclosure. For one reason or another, the victim reveals that abuse has occurred. It may be physically initiated if the child contracts a sexually transmitted disease or is damaged in some way. It may be the result of an accident if the sex-ual activity was observed or someone noted and re-ported the child’s indicative behavior. It may be that the victim feels she must tell someone because she can’t stand it anymore. Revealing abuse may or may not happen during childhood. The fifth and final phase is suppression. This is a time of high anxiety for both victim and family. Feelings may include de-nial on the part of the perpetrator, guilt and insecu-rity on the part of the victim, and anger on the part of other family members.
What factors increase the risk of child sexual abuse? Risk factors related to the child tend to dif-fer depending on the source of the information (Berliner, 2011). Some research suggests that girls are more likely to be victimized than boys (Berliner, 2011). However, other data propose that “boys are almost equally as vulnerable” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 122; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013). Some research proposes that “the average age of those abused is be-tween 4 and 6 years for boys and 11 and 14 years for girls (Berliner, 2011)” (Crosson-Tower, 2014, p. 122). In contrast, other sources suggest that “boys are older at onset of victimization” (Berliner, 2011, p. 219). Most studies reveal that children who have a disability are at greater risk of sexual abuse (Berliner, 2011; Crosson-Tower, 2014). These children are more vulnerable and less able to defend themselves. In essence, they offer easier targets for perpetrators.
There are also a number of risk factors character-izing families (Berliner, 2011; Crosson-Tower, 2014; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013); these include the following:
● Absence of a biological parent from the home—stepfather or a mother’s boyfriend may be present.
● Family conflict and communication problems—when communication is poor, roles may become blurred. For example, when husband and wife or partners are in conflict, the male partner may turn to a female child to fulfill his needs.
● Family isolation—because secrecy is necessary for abuse to occur, a family may intensify its isolation even more.
● Having a mother who is not readily available to children (e.g., being ill or employed outside the home)—if communication is poor between mothers and daughters, it becomes even more difficult for daughters to turn to their mothers for help.
Consider the unknown proportion of mothers who do not know that the incest is occurring. There may be many reasons for this. The marriage is con-flictual. Communication is lacking between the woman and her husband and the woman and her daughter. She may see things that are strange, but she works hard to deny them. She has a lot to lose if the incest is brought out into the open. She may feel resentment toward a daughter who has taken her husband and lover away from her. She may feel shame that this taboo is occurring within her own family. She may feel guilt for being such a failure to her husband that he had to turn to another. She may desperately fear having her family ripped apart. It is a very difficult situation for a mother in the incest triangle. She is not the abuser. Yet no alternatives are available that offer her a happy solution.
In some ways, the mother in the incestuous tri-angle is also a victim. She has been raised in a pa-triarchal society where she has been taught to be dependent, unassertive, and passive. She has also been taught that she is supposed to be the care-taker of the emotional well-being of her family. She has not been given the skills needed to aggressively fight for herself and her daughter in this desperate situation.
The Internet and Sexual Abuse PredatorsThe internet provides a readily accessible means for pedophiles to interact with each other, validate their thoughts and acts, and share pornographic materi-als (Crooks & Baur, 2014). It also provides fertile ground for pedophiles seeking victims to satisfy their pedophilic fantasies and needs. They can eas-ily cruise bulletin boards and chat rooms intended
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2 2 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
for children and adolescents. Often, they adhere to the following process (Crooks & Baur, 2014). First, perpetrators converse with the intended victims on-line, trying to convince victims of genuine interest in victims’ troubles and issues. Second, they seek con-tact information such as email and home addresses. Third, perpetrators will send victims pornographic content, hoping to demonstrate that such behavior is proper and standard. Fourth, perpetrators will try to set up a meeting with intended victims.
Berliner (2011) reports on the incidence of inter-net sexual abuse:
Rates of unwanted Internet sexual solicitations declined from 19% to 13%, but harassment (6% to 9%) and unwanted exposure to pornography (25% to 34%) increased from 2000 to 2005 (Mitchell, Wolak, & Finkelhor, 2007). However, a 2005 survey found that youth were more likely to report aggressive solicitations, and the rates of different forms of online sexual victimization decreased or increased with variations by age, gender, race, and household. There is little data on voluntary participation in illegal sexual activities or involvement in child pornography. (p. 218)
Characteristics of Sexual Abuse VictimsChildren who are sexually abused may display a va-riety of physical, psychological, and behavioral in-dicators. Physical indicators may include a variety of physical problems that are sexually related, such as sexually transmitted diseases, problems with the throat or mouth, difficulties with urination, penile or vaginal discharge, or bruises in the genital area. Pregnancy is also an indicator.
Psychological indicators include low self-esteem, emotional disturbance, anger, fear, anxiety, and depression, sometimes to the point of becoming suicidal (Berliner, 2011; Berliner & Elliott, 2002; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013). Behavioral indicators include withdrawing from others and experiencing difficulties in peer interaction. Often, victims of ei-ther gender engage in excessive sexual activity and inappropriate sexual behavior (Berliner, 2011; Faller, 2003; Friedrich et al., 2001).
Behavior related to sex that strikes you as being odd may also be an indicator. This refers once again to your “gut reaction” that something’s wrong. For example, a child may know sexual terms or display sexual gestures that strike you as being inappropriate
for her age level. A child may touch herself or others inappropriately in a sexual manner. A child may ex-press desperate fears about being touched, undress-ing and taking showers in gym class, or being alone with a certain gender or with certain people.
Specific things that children say may strike you as odd and may be indicative of sexual abuse. For in-stance, a child may say, “Daddy and I have a secret”; “My babysitter wears red underwear”; or “I don’t like going to Aunt Shirley’s house. She diddles me.”
Long-Term Effects of Sexual AbuseAlthough significant research indicates that sexual abuse victims can suffer long-term effects, this is a very complex issue. Abuse can vary in intensity, du-ration, and extent of trauma to the survivor. Long-term effects vary dramatically from one person to another (Rathus et al., 2014). Receiving treatment can also help survivors deal with issues and effects.
Research has established that survivors, as com-pared with people who have not been sexually abused, are more likely to experience emotional problems such as depression, fear of relationships, interpersonal problems, sexual dysfunctions, sexual acting out, and symptoms of posttraumatic stress (Berliner, 2011; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013). Sexual acting out may involve overt sexual behavior directed “toward adults or other children, compulsive mastur-bation, excessive sexual curiosity, sexual promiscuity, and precocious sexual play and knowledge” (Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013, p. 123). Posttraumatic stress disorder is a condition in which a person continues to reexperience an excessively traumatic event such as a bloody battle experience or a sexual assault. Symp-toms include extreme anxiety, nightmares, an inabil-ity to sleep or stay awake, an inability to concentrate, and explosive, angry emotional outbursts.
Note that because of the tremendous disparity in how sexual abuse affects individuals, no specific variables are consistently linked to long-term prob-lems (Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013). Although they may contribute to the risk of having problems, sex-ual abuse experiences do not condemn a person to a miserable life. Effects depend on a number of fac-tors. For example “the availability of social supports following the disclosure of abuse, such as maternal support or a supportive relationship with another adult, appears to mitigate negative effects and play a protective role” (Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013, p. 129; Pollio, Deblinger, & Runyon, 2011).
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 2 7
Research has established that the following five variables increase the risk of more serious problems in adulthood for survivors of sexual abuse (Berliner, 2011; Berliner & Elliott, 2002; Crosson-Tower, 2014; Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013):
1. Closer relationship to the perpetrator. Sexual abuse by a family member, or by another person the victim feels close to and trusts, is related to deeper trauma in adulthood.
2. Duration of the abuse. The longer the abuse con-tinued, the greater the likelihood of long-term negative effects. However, even a single incident can cause severe trauma if extremely violent or sadistic behavior (the infliction of pain on the survivor for the offender’s sexual gratification) occurred (Beitchman et al., 1992).
3. Use of force and the intensity of abuse. Using force or causing pain tends to result in more devastat-ing effects. The occurrence of penile penetration is also related to greater trauma.
4. Absence of parental and other support. When a victim first reveals the abuse, lack of support
from those close to her potentially results in greater long-term problems. If others criticize or blame her, she may suffer significant psychologi-cal distress. The victim may even decide to hide into adulthood what she may perceive as her “dirty secret.” See Highlight 4.4 for suggestions about how to talk and positively relate to victims of sexual abuse.
5. Inability of the survivor to cope. Some individu-als have a personality structure that naturally allows them to cope more effectively with crises and stress. Human personality is a complicated concept.
Treatment of Children Who Have Been Sexually Abused: Social Work RoleBecause of its prevalence, we will focus on treatment of the incestuous family. Treatment usually pro-gresses through three phases (Crosson-Tower, 2014, pp. 297–298). The first is the disclosure-panic phase. Strong feelings characterize this period of crisis. Family members display much anger and denial.
Suggestions for talking to children victimized by Sexual assault ● Always believe the child. It takes courage to talk about
such difficult things, and it’s easy to turn the child off. ● Be warm and empathic. Encourage the child to talk freely
to you. Reflecting the child’s feelings back is useful. ● Don’t react with shock or disgust no matter what the child
tells you, that only communicates to the child that he or she is the one to blame.
● Encourage the child to share all feelings with you, includ-ing the negative ones. Even getting the angry feelings out helps the child overcome the feelings of victimization. Give the child the chance to ventilate his or her feelings so he or she can deal with them.
● Listen to the child, Don’t disagree or argue. Interrupt only when you have to in order to understand what the child is saying.
● Talk to the child in a private place. The child may feel much more comfortable if others aren’t around to hear.
● Tell the child that he or she is not the only child who has had this experience. Other children have, too.
● Allow the child to express feelings of guilt Emphasize to the child that it was not his or her fault. The adult abuser is the one who has a problem and needs help.
● Talk in language that the child can understand. Give ac-curate information when it’s needed. Let the child repeat things back to you to make certain he or she understands.
● Tell the child that you are very glad he or she told you about the incidents. Emphasize that it was the right thing to do.
● Ask if the child would like to ask you any questions, and be sure to answer them honestly.
● Do not treat the child any differently after he or she has told you. This only communicates that you think he or she is to blame or did the wrong thing.
● If the child asks you to keep the abuse secret, answer hon-estly. Tell the child that you only want to help, that secrets that hurt people aren’t good to keep, and that the secrets need to be brought out into the open in order to help the person who abused him or her.
● Finally, depending on your situation, don’t let the issue drop. If you are the social worker involved, pursue the problem. Otherwise, tell the parents and/or the appropri-ate authorities so that the child can get help.
HIGHLIGHT 4.4
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2 2 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
The victim is often frightened about what will hap-pen and eager to blame herself. The second phase is the assessment-awareness phase. During this phase, the family acknowledges that the abuse has occurred and struggles to deal with its consequences. Family members learn about themselves and the dynam-ics involved in their family interaction. The social worker works to redefine and realign the boundaries of subsystems within the family. This phase tends to be characterized by conflicting feelings. On the one hand, they are angry that the abuse has occurred and eager to blame each other. On the other hand, they are struggling to realign their relationships and ex-press the feelings of love they have for each other. The third phase is the restructure phase. Here the family regains emotional health. Boundaries are clearly established and family members learn how to function within them. Communication is greatly enhanced and members can use it to work out their differences. Parents take responsibility for their be-havior, and the victim feels much better about herself.
Initial treatment has several major objectives. The first is to provide a safe environment where the incest survivor feels comfortable enough to talk (Pollio et al., 2011). A survivor must learn how to identify, express, and share her feelings, even when they are negative and frightening. LeVine and Sallee (1999) explain:
Although the child may not have experienced fear during an incestuous relationship, discovery may create anxiety. Children need assurances that no matter what has happened in the past, they are now safe. The end of abuse through the efforts of the police or the child welfare worker will begin to build trust in the child. The child must feel that it is all right for him or her to feel any suppressed guilt, hurt, anger, and confusion. The opportunity to express these feelings honestly, in an atmosphere of trust, begins a sense of security. (p. 329)
A second treatment goal involves having the sur-vivor acknowledge that the abuse was not her fault (Crosson-Tower, 2014; LeVine & Sallee, 1999). Guilt may result from feelings of love for the perpetrator, appreciation of the special attention she received from the abuse, or worry about what the disclo-sure will do to the family (Crosson-Tower, 2014). Dwelling on inappropriate and unfair self-blame only hampers the recovery process.
A third treatment objective involves teaching survivors to identify and express their emotions in addition to getting control of their problematic
behaviors. Cognitive-behavioral therapy techniques, which reflect this objective, have been used effec-tively to help sexual abuse survivors (Miller-Perrin & Perrin, 2013; Pollio et al., 2011). These approaches embrace the conceptual framework espoused by be-havioral (learning) theory (discussed earlier in the chapter). Additionally, they assume an educational perspective of providing information about sexual abuse and its effects, stress the use of homework, ex-pect clients to become actively engaged in changing problematic behavior, and emphasize a strong role for the therapist (Corey, 2013). Cognitive-behavioral techniques “are time-limited, directive, transpar-ent, evidence based, and active, and they focus on changing the factors thought to maintain psycho-logical problems” (Wedding & Corsini, 2014, p. 195). Highlight 4.5 identifies a number of components that can be used in cognitive-behavioral therapy.
A fourth treatment goal involves enhancing fam-ily communication, support, functioning, and un-derstanding of the abuse (Crosson-Tower, 2014). Individual concerns are dealt with in addition to family interaction issues. Miller-Perrin and Perrin (2013) explain:
Typical themes addressed in family-oriented therapies include parents’ failure to protect the victim from abuse, feelings of guilt and depression resulting from the abuse, the inappropriateness of secrecy, the victims anger toward parents, the perpetrator’s responsibility for the abuse, appropriate forms of touch, confusion about blurred role boundaries, poor communication patterns, and the effect the abuse has had on the child. (p. 142)
Trauma-Informed CareApproximately 35 million children ages 0–17 have faced one or more types of trauma (National Survey of Children’s Health, 2011/2012). Children may face trauma in their own lives (e.g., maltreatment, do-mestic violence, poverty, separation from parents) or may face trauma through the witnessing of violence, war, or natural disasters. Children are more vulner-able than adults to psychological harm from these events (Papalia & Martorell, 2015). Children’s re-sponses vary depending on their age and the nature and severity of exposure (Papalia & Martorell, 2015; Santrock, 2016).
Research has shown that trauma can have a nega-tive impact on brain development, including decreased volume in the cerebellum, smaller pre-frontal cortexes, lower Cortisol levels, and decreased electrical activity
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 2 9
in the brain (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015). These changes can result in children having a persistent fear response, being hyper-aroused, in-creased internalizing symptoms, diminished execu-tive functioning, delayed developmental milestones, weakened response to positive feedback, and compli-cated social interactions (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015). It is important to note that early in-tervention can help the brain to recover from trauma (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015).
Social workers are encouraged to use trauma-informed approaches and trauma-specific interven-tions to help address trauma (SAMSHA, 2015). A trauma-informed approach
1. “Realizes the widespread impact of trauma and understands potential paths for recovery;
2. Recognizes the signs and symptoms of trauma in clients, families, staff, and others involved with the system;
3. Responds by fully integrating knowledge about trauma into policies, procedures, and practices; and
4. Seeks to actively resist re-traumatization.” (SAMSHA, 2015)
Six key principles included in a trauma-informed approach include safety; trustworthiness and transpar-ency; peer support; collaboration and mutuality; em-powerment, voice and choice; cultural, historical, and gender issues (SAMSHA, 2015).
There are multiple trauma-specific interven-tions (SAMSHA, 2015). Some of these approaches
include Adverse childhood experiences (ACE) re-sponse, neurosequential model of therapeutics (NMT), and the attachment and biobehavioral catch-up (ABC) for infants and young children (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015; SAM-SHA, 2015). It is important to consider the cli-ents specific needs in order to choose the right intervention. Trauma-specific interventions include respecting, informing and connecting the client; rec-ognizing the interrelationship between trauma and trauma symptoms (e.g., acting out, substance use, mental health concerns), and the need to work col-laboratively with the client, the client’s family and any agencies working with the client in order to empower the client and client system (SAMSHA, 2015). The field of neurobiology and the impact of trauma on the brain continues to expand. It is criti-cal that social workers stay informed about the lat-est developments.
Prevention of Sexual Abuse: The Need for a Macro-System ResponseThe ideal way of dealing with sexual abuse is to pre-vent it from happening at all. Information and edu-cation are the keys to prevention. Parents need both education about how to raise children and knowl-edge that in the event they are in crisis resources are available to help. Parenting education could be made a required part of all high school curricula. Special programs could be made readily available in the community to help parents with these issues.
Use of cognitive-Behavioral techniques with children Who have Been Sexually abusedMiller-Perrin and Perrin (2013) identify and describe the following components of cognitive-behavioral therapy that can be used to help children who have been sexually abused:
● Psychoeducation: Providing accurate information about the problem of sexual abuse and common reactions to this abuse. This component also includes teaching safety skills to help children feel empowered and to help them protect themselves from future victimization.
● Anxiety Reduction Techniques: Training and practice in various relaxation skills to reduce fear and anxiety.
● Affective Expression: Building various skills to help chil-dren express and manage their feelings effectively.
● Exposure Therapy: Gradual exposure to elements of the abuse experience in order to decondition negative emo-tional responses to memories of the abuse. This component involves verbal, written, and play activities to encourage children to share and process abuse-related experiences.
● Cognitive Therapy Techniques: Identifying negative attri-butions and distorted cognitions (e.g., irrational thinking and inaccurate perceptions) associated with the abuse and replacing them with more accurate thoughts and beliefs.
● Parenting Skills: Training parents in various management techniques to help them become more effective parents. (Rational therapy, a cognitive therapy approach, is described in depth in Chapter 8.) (p. 138)
HIGHLIGHT 4.5
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2 3 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Educating Children About Sexual AbuseChildren need to be educated about sexual abuse. There are three basic preventative approaches. First, children should be taught that their bodies are their own and that they have private places where nobody can force them to be touched. What comes to mind are the parents who tell their 4-year-old son to go up to each relative at the culmination of an extended family event and “give them a kiss.” The child obvi-ously finds this distasteful. He frowns, looks down at his shoes, and hides behind his mother. He knows that old Aunt Hilda gives really slobbery, wet ones. And she hugs him like the Crusher in a wrestling match, too. He hates the very thought of it, even though his aunt is a kind person who loves him.
Children should have the right to say no if they don’t want to have such intimacy. Parents and teach-ers can help children determine what are “good touches” and what are “bad touches.” They can also help children develop the confidence to say no to adults in uncomfortable situations involving touch-ing them in ways they don’t like.
A second preventative measure for children is to learn correct sexual terminology right from the be-ginning. It’s easy for parents, especially if they’re uncomfortable with sexual terminology themselves, to sugarcoat words and refer to “ding-dongs” and “bumps.” One 3-year-old girl came out into the midst of a family gathering and told her mother, “My pooderpie hurts.” She had her hand placed over her clothes on her genital area. Her mother, with a look of terror, desperation, and embarrassment, jumped up and dashed off with her to the bathroom. Apparently, the little girl had to urinate and didn’t identify the feeling as such. A few months later, the same 3-year-old was chattering on about some topic that was desperately important to a 3-year-old, pointed to her buttocks, and interjected something about her pooderpie again. My reaction was, “Yikes, the pooderpie has moved. Where will it go next?”
The point is that if this little girl tells someone that a person touched her pooderpie, that someone might respond, “Oh, that’s nice.” Whomever she tells would have no idea what she was talking about. In-accurate, childish terminology does not equip chil-dren with the communication skills they need if they encounter a sexually abusive situation. Children need to be able to specify what people are doing or have tried to do to them. Only then can their caregiv-ers adequately protect them.
This leads to our third preventative suggestion. Lines of communication between caregivers and chil-dren should be encouraged and kept open. Children need to feel that they can share things with’ parents, including things that bother them. In the event that children are placed in a potentially abusive situation, they need to be encouraged and to be able to “tell someone.”
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to
LO 1 Explain the concept of socialization.Socialization is the process through which individu-als learn proper ways of acting in a society.
LO 2 Analyze the family environment (including variations in family structures, positive family func-tioning, macro systems and the pursuit of social and economic justice, and family system dynamics).Wide variations in family structures exist. Important concepts include primary group, single-parent family, stepfamily, and blended family. Changes from tradi-tional family patterns include marrying earlier or not at all, living together without marriage, being together but living separately, more births to single mothers, and higher levels of mothers’ employment. Positive family functioning involves good communication.
Macro systems can affect families both positively and negatively. Families require resources such as adequate day care in order to function effectively.
LO 3 Apply systems theory concepts to families.Systems theory concepts can be readily applied to families. Important concepts include systems, ho-meostasis, subsystems, boundaries, input, output, feedback, entropy, negative entropy, equifinality, and differentiation.
LO 4 Assess the family life cycle.Formerly, it was thought that families progressed predictably through a six-stage family life cycle. Contemporary thought views families as passing through life-cycle stages in a less predictable, more diverse manner.
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Social Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 31
LO 5 Explain diverse perspectives on the family life cycle.Family life cycles are dramatically affected by di-verse variables, including class, culture, disability, ethnicity, gender, immigration status, race, religion, and sexual orientation. Diversity is also reflected in the context of single adults and immigration status.
LO 6 Describe learning theory.Learning theory provides an exceptionally useful means of conceptualizing and understanding human behavior. It is a theoretical orientation that empha-sizes behavior, its preceding event, and its subse-quent consequences.
Behavior modification involves the therapeu-tic application of learning theory principles. Major approaches within learning theory include respon-dent conditioning, which focuses on stimuli and re-sponses; modeling, which is based on observation; and operant conditioning, which emphasizes regu-lating the consequences of behavior. Major terms in operant conditioning are positive and negative rein-forcement, punishment, and extinction.
LO 7 Apply learning theory concepts to practice (including positive reinforcement, punishment, issues related to the application of learning theory, and time-out from reinforcement).Applications of learning theory to practice include the use of positive reinforcement, punishment, and time-out from reinforcement. When using positive reinforcement, quality, immediacy, and frequency are important. When using punishment, it’s impor-tant to attend to potential negative consequences and use punishment only selectively.
Other significant issues in the application of learn-ing theory include accidental training, using behav-iorally specific terminology, measuring improvement, and the importance of parental attention. Time-out from reinforcement should be brief, boring, applied immediately and consistently, and used along with positive reinforcement for appropriate behavior.
LO 8 Examine common life events that affect chil-dren (including treatment of children in families, sibling subsystems, and gender-role socialization).The family environment is of crucial importance to children’s socialization and is characterized by various parenting styles. As members of family sys-tems, children are affected by sibling subsystems
(including the births of new siblings, sibling interac-tion, and the effects of birth order, family size, and family spacing) and gender-role socialization.
LO 9 Recognize ethnic and cultural differences in families.The father’s role in the family, availability and nature of support systems, and perspectives on disciplin-ing children vary greatly among cultures. Themes in understanding Hispanic and Latino families in-clude the significance of a common language, the importance of family relationships, and the strict di-vision of gender roles. Concepts especially relevant to Native American families are the importance of extended family, cooperation, mutual respect, har-mony with nature, treatment of time, spirituality, and noninterference. Themes that characterize Asian American families include the importance of family as the primary unit, interdependence among family members, investment in children, and patriarchal hierarchy.
LO 10 Assess relevant aspects of the social envi-ronment (including the social aspects of play with peers, bullying, the influence of television and the media, and the school environment).Play is a significant aspect of children’s interaction and development. Children may progress through de-velopmental levels of play. Gender differences exist in terms of aggression and toy preference. Peer groups and popularity are very important to children.
Bullying is “aggression by an individual that is re-peatedly directed toward particular peers (victims)” (Steinberg et al., 2011b, p. 318). Bullying has become a major problem for many children.
Children spend enormous amounts of time watch-ing television and playing video games, resulting in concerns about the portrayal of violence, an unrealistic depiction of the world, and the teaching of aggressive, violent behavior. Suggestions for how school person-nel can discourage and prevent bullying are provided.
The school environment provides a major arena for socialization. Effective teachers and school envi-ronments are important. Gaps in educational attain-ment exist among different racial groups and should be addressed.
LO 11 Examine child maltreatment (including inci-dence, physical child abuse, child neglect, and psy-chological maltreatment). Child Protective Services,
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2 32 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
treatment approaches for child maltreatment and sexual abuse and Trauma-informed care.Large numbers of children are physically abused, neglected, psychologically maltreated, or sexually abused.
Indications of physical abuse include bruises, lac-erations, fractures, burns, head injuries, internal in-juries, extremely passive or aggressive behavior, and lags in development.
Child neglect is often characterized by inadequate physical or mental health care, education, supervi-sion, basic housing safety and sanitation, and per-sonal hygiene in addition to abandonment. Victims may exhibit social and attachment difficulties, cogni-tive and academic deficits, and emotional and behav-ioral problems.
Psychological maltreatment involves active abuse such as rejecting, isolating, terrorizing, ignoring, or corrupting.
Child Protective Services (CPS) entail a macro-system response to child maltreatment. CPS agencies initiate investigations, conduct assessments, make custody determinations, and use various modalities to provide treatment that addresses child maltreat-ment. Social work practitioners can play significant roles as CPS workers and workers for other agencies in helping to address and stop child maltreatment. Another macro-system response concerns involve-ment of the courts.
Sexual abuse often occurs in a gradual process by someone a child knows and trusts. The internet pro-vides a readily accessible mechanism for pedophiles to prey on children and adolescents. Physical and be-havioral indicators of sexual abuse may be evident. Sexual abuse may have long-term effects, with some variables increasing the risk of more serious prob-lems. Treatment for sexual abuse involves providing child survivors with a safe environment, acknowl-edging that abuse is the perpetrator’s fault, using cognitive-behavioral techniques, and enhancing fam-ily communication and interaction. Macro-system responses to child maltreatment may include en-hancing programming for educating children about sexual abuse.
Trauma-informed care is a treatment framework that involves understanding, recognizing, and re-sponding to the effects of all types of trauma.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and behaviors are discussed in this chapter.
EP 6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies.
EP 7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies.
EP 8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (All of this chapter.)Material on concepts and theories about human be-havior and the social environment affecting social development in infancy and childhood are presented throughout this chapter.
EP 1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 165, 190, 195, 196, 210, 212, 217, 220).Ethical questions are posed.
EP 2a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels.
EP 2c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies (pp. 170–174, 197, 198–201, 212–213, 215).Diversity content is presented on: diverse perspec-tives on the family life cycle, cultural context and parenting style, ethnic and cultural differences in families, cultural contexts in disciplining children, and race and ethnicity and schools.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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2 3 3
EthnocEntrism and racism
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Abraham Lincoln has the reputation of being the key person in ending slavery in our country. Yet it appears that Lincoln held racist beliefs, as indicated in the following ex-cerpt from a speech he delivered in 1858:
I will say, then, that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races; that I am not, nor ever have been, in favor of making voters or jurorsde of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to inter-marry with white people . . . and in as much as they cannot so live, while they do remain together there must be the position of superior and inferior, and I as much as any other man am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race.
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2 3 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Such a statement needs to be viewed in its historical context. Our country was more racist years ago than it is today. Lincoln, who was in the vanguard of moving for greater equality for African Americans, was also socialized by his culture to have racist attitudes. (The impact of culture on individuals was discussed in Chapter 1.)
A PerspectiveNearly every time we turn on the evening news, we see ethnic and racial conflict—riots, beatings, murders, and civil wars. In recent years we have seen clashes resulting in bloody shed in areas ranging from Afghanistan to Iraq, from Syria to Israel, and from the United States to South America. Practically every nation with more than one ethnic group has had to deal with ethnic conflict. The oppression and exploitation of one ethnic group by another is particularly ironic in democratic nations, considering these societies claim to cherish freedom, equality, and justice. In reality, the dominant group in all societ-ies that controls the political and economic institutions rarely agrees to share equally its power and wealth with other ethnic groups. Ethnocentrism and racism are factors that can adversely affect the growth and development of minority group members.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Define and describe ethnic groups, ethnocentrism, race, racism, prejudice, discrimination, oppression, and institutional discriminationLO 2 Outline the sources of prejudice and discriminationLO 3 Summarize the effects and costs of discrimination and oppres-sion and describe effects of discrimination on human growth and developmentLO 4 Suggest strategies for advancing social and economic justiceLO 5 Outline some guidelines for social work practice with racial and ethnic groupsLO 6 Forecast the pattern of race and ethnic relations in the United States in the future
EP 2aEP 2bEP 2cEP 3aEP 3b
LO 1 Define and Describe Ethnic Groups, Ethnocentrism, Race, Racism, Prejudice, Discrimination, Oppression, and Institutional Discrimination
Ethnic Groups and EthnocentrismAn ethnic group has a sense of togetherness, a con-viction that its members form a special group, and a sense of common identity or “peoplehood.” An
ethnic group is a distinct group of people who share cultural characteristics, such as religion, language, dietary practices, national origin, and a common history, and who regard themselves as a distinct group.
Practically every ethnic group has a strong feel-ing of ethnocentrism, which is characterized or based on the belief that one’s own group is superior. Ethnocentrism leads members of ethnic groups to view their culture as the best, as superior, as the one that other cultures should adopt. Ethnocen-trism also leads to prejudice against foreigners, who
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 35
may be viewed as barbarians, uncultured people, or savages.
Feelings of ethnic superiority within a nation are usually accompanied by the belief that political and economic domination by one’s own group is natural, is morally right, is in the best interest of the nation, and perhaps also is God’s will. Ethnocentrism has been a factor leading to some of the worst atroci-ties in history, such as the American colonists’ nearly successful attempt to exterminate Native Americans and Adolf Hitler’s mass executions of more than 6 million European Jews, and millions more gypsies, people with disabilities, and other minority group members.
In interactions between nations, ethnocentric be-liefs sometimes lead to wars and serve as justifica-tions for foreign conquests. At practically any point in the last several centuries, at least a few wars have occurred between nations in which one society has been seeking to force its culture on another or to eradicate another culture (including genocide). For example, Israel has been involved in bitter struggles with Arab countries in the Middle East for more than four decades over territory ownership. Shiites, Sunnis, and Kurds are fighting for domination in Iraq and Syria.
Spotlight 5.1 details some of the violence against minorities that has taken place in U.S. history.
Race and RacismAlthough a racial group is often also an ethnic group, the two groups are not necessarily the same. A race is believed to have a common set of physi-cal characteristics. But the members of a racial group may or may not share the sense of together-ness or identity that holds an ethnic group together. A group that is both a racial group and an ethnic group is Japanese Americans, who have some com-mon physical characteristics and also have a sense of peoplehood (Coleman & Cressey, 1984). On the other hand, white Americans and white Russians are of the same race, but they hardly have a sense of to-getherness. In addition, some ethnic groups are com-posed of a variety of races. For example, a religious group (such as Roman Catholic) is sometimes con-sidered an ethnic group and is composed of mem-bers from diverse racial groups.
In contrast to ethnocentrism, racism is more likely to be based on physical differences than on cultural differences. Racism is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human capacities and traits and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. Racism is frequently a basis of discrimination against members of other “racial” groups.
Similar to ethnocentric ideologies, most racist ide-ologists assert that members of other racial groups are inferior. Some white Americans in this country have gone to extreme and morally reprehensible lim-its in search of greater control and power over other racial groups.
A Native American woman creates jewelry that is revered in her culture—and is cherished by consumers. In general, it is important for ethnic groups to preserve their cultures.
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2 3 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Violence against minorities in the United statesMinorities have been subjected to extensive violence by whites in our society. Although a number of whites have been subjected to violence by nonwhites, statistics show disproportionate attacks against minorities. The 2015 FBI Hate Crime Statistics showed that of the reported 5,850 hate crime (although many are unreported), more than half targeted African Americans. In addition, hate crimes based on religion, specifically Jewish and Muslim-Americans, increased significantly.
During the second half of the nineteenth century, frequent massacres of Chinese mining and railroad workers occurred in the West. During one railroad strike in 1885, white workers stormed a Chinese community in Rock Springs, Wyoming, murdered 16 persons, and burned all the homes to the ground. No one was arrested. In 1871, a white mob raided the Chinese community in Los Angeles, killing 19 persons and hanging 15 to serve as a warning to survivors (Pinkney, 1972).
Pinkney (1972) comments on the treatment of African American slaves by their white owners:
Few adult slaves escaped some form of sadism at the hands of slaveholders. A female slaveholder was widely known to punish her slaves by beating them on the face. Another burned her slave girl on the neck with hot tongs. A drunken slaveholder dismembered his slave, and threw him piece by piece into a fire. Another planter dragged his slave from bed and inflicted a thousand lashes on him. (p. 73)
Slaveowners often used a whip made of cow skin or rawhide to control their slaves. An elaborate punishment system was developed, linking the number of lashes to the seriousness of the offenses with which slaves were charged.
Shortly before the Civil War, roving bands of whites commonly descended on African American communities and terrorized and beat the inhabitants. Slaves sometimes struck back and killed their slaveowners or other whites. It has been estimated that during Reconstruction, more than 5,000 African Americans were killed in the South by white vigilante groups (Pinkney, 1972).
Following the Civil War, lynching of African Americans increased and continued into the 1950s. African Americans were lynched for such minor offenses as peeping into a window, attempting to vote, making offensive remarks, seeking employment in a restaurant, getting into a dispute with a white person, and expressing sympathy for another African American who had already been lynched. Arrests for lynching African Americans were rare. Lynch mobs included not only men but sometimes also women and children. Some lynchings were publicly announced, and the public was invited to participate. The public often appeared to enjoy the activities and urged the active lynchers on to greater brutality.
Race riots between whites and African Americans have also been common since the Civil War. During the summer of 1919, for example, 26 major race riots occurred, the most serious of which was in Chicago. In this riot, which lasted from July 27 to August 2, a total of 38 persons were killed, 537 were injured, and more than 1,000 were left homeless (Waskow, 1967).
Native Americans have been subjected to kidnapping, massacre, conquest, forced assimilation, and murder. Some tribes were completely exterminated. The treatment of Native Americans by whites in North America stands as one of the most revolting series of acts of violence in history.
The extermination of Native Americans began with the early Pilgrims. They were the first to establish a policy to massacre and exterminate Native Americans in this country. In 1636, the Massachusetts Bay Puritans sent a force to massacre the Pequot, a division of the Mohegau tribe. The dwellings were burned, and 600 inhabitants were slaughtered (Pinkney, 1972).
In 1642, the governor of New Netherlands began offering bounties for Native American scalps. A year later, this same governor ordered the massacre of the Wappinger tribe. Pinkney (1972) describes the massacre:
During the massacre infants were taken from their mother’s breast, cut in pieces and thrown into a fire or into the river. Some children who were still alive were also thrown into the river, and when their parents attempted to save them they drowned along with their children. When the massacre was over, the members of the murder party were congratulated by the grateful governor. (p. 96)
A major motive for this violence was that the European settlers were land-hungry. The deliberate massacre and extermination of Native Americans continued from the 1660s throughout most of the 1800s. The whites frequently made and broke treaties with Native Americans during these years—and ended up taking most of their land and sharply reducing their population. For example, in a forced march on foot covering several states, an estimated 4,000 Cherokees died from cold and exhaustion in 1838 (Pinkney, 1972). During these years, Native Americans were considered savage beasts. Many whites felt, “The only good Indian is a dead one,” and they exterminated Native Americans because it was felt they impeded economic progress.
Today, racial clashes between minority group members still occur, but on a smaller scale on the street and in some of our schools. In recent years, organizations that advocate white supremacy (such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazis, and Skinheads) have continued to attract new members. Demonstrations by these organizations have led to several bloody clashes between supporters and those opposed to these racist groups.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.1
(continued)
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 37
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.1 (continued)
Throughout U.S. history, there have also been incidents of police brutality by white officers against members of minority groups. For example, police brutality received national attention in 1991 when an African American motorist, Rodney King, was stopped after a lengthy car chase and beaten by four club-wielding white police officers in Los Angeles. The beatings were videotaped by a bystander. Mr. King received more than 50 blows from clubs and sustained 11 fractures in his skull, a broken ankle, and a number of other injuries. In April 1992, a jury (with no African American members) found the police officers not guilty on charges of using excessive force. The reaction of African Americans and others in Los Angeles has been described as the worst civil unrest in more than a century—nearly 60 people were killed and more than $800 million in damage resulted from rioting, looting, and destruction over a period of three days.
On August 9, 2014, Michael Brown, an unarmed black 18-year-old, was shot and killed by Darren Wilson, a white police officer in Ferguson, MO, a suburb of St. Louis. The
shooting prompted protests that lasted for weeks. On Nov. 24, the St. Louis county prosecutor announced that a grand jury had decided not to indict Officer Wilson. The announcement set off another wave of protests. In March 2015, the U.S. Justice Department ordered that the city of Ferguson overhaul its criminal justice system, declaring that the city had engaged in constitutional violations. Unfortunately, this has not stopped unarmed black men from being shot by police officers. Unarmed black men continue to be shot at disproportionate rates.
In 2015, the United States also saw an increase in crimes against Muslims, including burning of mosques and harassment (see Discrimination Against Arab Americans and American Muslims, later in this chapter). There was a 67 percent increase in anti-Muslim hate crimes from 2014 to 2015, the highest since the terrorist attacks in 2001. With fears of more terrorist attacks in the United States and increasing Islamophobia, fueled in some political environments, these numbers are not expected to decrease.
Aspects of Social and Economic Forces: Prejudice, Discrimination, and OppressionPrejudice is a preconceived adverse opinion or judg-ment formed without just grounds or before suf-ficient knowledge. Prejudice, in regard to race and ethnic relations, is making negative prejudgments. Prejudiced people apply racial stereotypes to all or nearly all members of a group according to precon-ceived notions of what they believe the group to be like and how they think the group will behave. Racial prejudice results from the belief that people who have different skin color and other physical char-acteristics also have innate differences in behaviors, values, intellectual functioning, and attitudes.
The word discrimination has two very different meanings. It may have the positive meaning of the power of making fine distinctions between two or more ideas, objects, situations, or stimuli. However, in minority-group relations it is the unfair treatment of a person, racial group, or minority; it is an action based on prejudice.
Racial or ethnic discrimination involves denying to members of minority groups equal access to op-portunities, residential housing areas, membership
in religious and social organizations, involvement in political activities, access to community services, and so on.
Prejudice is a combination of stereotyped beliefs and negative attitudes, so that prejudiced individu-als think about people in a predetermined, usually negative, categorical way. Discrimination involves physical actions—unequal treatment of people be-cause they belong to a category. Discriminatory behavior often derives from prejudiced attitudes. Robert Merton, however, notes that prejudice and discrimination can occur independently. In discuss-ing discrimination in the United States, he describes four different “types” of people:
1. The unprejudiced nondiscriminator, in both belief and practice, upholds American ideals of free-dom and equality. This person is not prejudiced against other groups and, on principle, will not discriminate against them.
2. The unprejudiced discriminator is not personally prejudiced but may sometimes, reluctantly, dis-criminate against other groups because it seems socially or financially convenient to do so.
3. The prejudiced nondiscriminator feels hostile to other groups but recognizes that law and social pressures are opposed to overt discrimination.
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2 3 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Reluctantly, this person does not translate preju-dice into action.
4. The prejudiced discriminator does not believe in the values of freedom and equality and consis-tently discriminates against other groups in both word and deed.
An example of an unprejudiced discriminator is the unprejudiced owner of a condominium complex in an all-white middle-class suburb who refuses to sell a condominium to an African American family because of fear (founded or unfounded) that the sale would reduce the sale value of the remaining units. An example of a prejudiced nondiscriminator is a personnel director of a fire department who believes Mexican Americans are unreliable and poor fire-fighters yet complies with affirmative action efforts to hire and train Mexican American firefighters.
It is very difficult to keep personal prejudices from eventually leading to some form of discrimina-tion. Strong laws and firm informal social norms are necessary to break the relationships between preju-dice and discrimination.
Discrimination is of two types. De jure discrimina-tion is legal discrimination. The so-called Jim Crow laws in the South (enacted shortly after the Civil War ended) gave force of law to many discrimina-tory practices against African Americans, including denial of the right to trial, prohibition against vot-ing, and prohibition against interracial marriage. To-day, in the United States, there is no de jure racial discrimination because such laws have been declared unconstitutional.
De facto discrimination refers to discrimination that actually exists, whether legal or not. Most acts of de facto discrimination abide by powerful in-formal norms that are discriminatory. Cummings (1977) gives an example of this type of discrimina-tion and urges victims to confront it assertively:
Scene: department store. Incident: several people are waiting their turn at a counter. The person next to be served is a black woman; however, the clerk waits on several white customers who arrived later. The black woman finally demands service, after several polite gestures to call the clerk’s attention to her. The clerk proceeds to wait on her after stating, “I did not see you.” The clerk is very discourteous to the black customer, and the lack of courtesy is apparent, because the black customer had the opportunity to observe treatment of the
other customers. De facto discrimination is most frustrating . . .; [after all, say some] the customer was served. Most people would rather just forget the whole incident, but it is important to challenge the practice even though it will possibly put you through more agony. One of the best ways to deal with this type of discrimination is to report it to the manager of the business. If it is at all possible, it is important to involve the clerk in the discussion. (p. 200)
Oppression is the unjust or cruel exercise of au-thority or power. Members of minority groups in our society are frequently victimized by oppression from segments of the white power structure. Op-pression and discrimination are closely related, as all acts of oppression are also acts of discrimination. Oppression is the social act of placing severe restric-tions on a group or institution.
Racial and Ethnic StereotypesStereotypes are generalizations, or assumptions, that people make about the characteristics of all mem-bers of a group, based on an image (often wrong) about what people in a group are like.
Racial and ethnic stereotypes involve attribut-ing a fixed and usually inaccurate or unfavorable conception to a racial or ethnic group. Stereotypes are closely related to the way we think, as we seek to perceive and understand things in categories. We need categories to group things that are similar in order to study them and to communicate about them. We have stereotypes about many categories, including mothers, fathers, teenagers, communists, Republicans, schoolteachers, farmers, construction workers, miners, politicians, Mormons, and Italians. These stereotypes may contain some useful and ac-curate information about a member in any category. Yet each member of any category will have many characteristics that are not suggested by the stereo-types and is apt to have some characteristics that run counter to some of the stereotypes.
Racial stereotypes involve differentiating people in terms of color or other physical characteristics. For example, historically there was the erroneous ste-reotype that Native Americans become easily intoxi-cated and irrational when using alcohol. This belief was then translated into laws that prohibited Native Americans from buying and consuming alcohol. A more recent stereotype is that African Americans
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 39
have a natural ability to play basketball and certain other sports. Although at first glance, such a stereo-type appears complimentary to African Americans, it has broader, negative implications. The danger is that if people believe the stereotype, they may also feel that other abilities and capacities (such as intelli-gence, morals, and work productivity) are also deter-mined by race. In other words, believing this positive stereotype increases the probability that people will also believe negative stereotypes.
Racial and Ethnic Discrimination Is the Problem of WhitesMyrdal (1944) pointed out that minority problems are actually majority problems. The white majority determines the place of nonwhites and other ethnic groups in our society. The status of different mi-nority groups varies in our society because whites apply different stereotypes to various groups. For example, African Americans are viewed and treated differently from Japanese Americans. E. H. Johnson (1973) noted, “Minority relationships become recog-nized by the majority as a social problem when the members of the majority disagree as to whether the subjugation of the minority is socially desirable or in the ultimate interest of the majority” (p. 344). Con-cern about discrimination and segregation has also received increasing national attention because of a rising level of aspiration among minority groups who demand (sometimes militantly) equal opportu-nities and equal rights.
Our country was founded on the principle of hu-man equality. The Declaration of Independence and the Constitution assert equality, justice, and liberty for all. Yet in practice, our society has always dis-criminated against minorities.
The groups of people who have been singled out for unequal treatment in our society have changed somewhat over the years. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, people of Irish, Italian, and Polish descent were discriminated against, but that discrimination has been substantially reduced. In the nineteenth century, Americans of Chinese descent were severely discriminated against. However, such bias also has been declining for many decades. Because of 9/11, and terrorist activities by ISIS and Al Qaeda, some Arab Americans are now being victimized by dis-crimination in the United States (see Spotlight 5.2).
White PrivilegeAn underexposed part of racism in the United States is that white people (and white men in particular) have privileges that other Americans do not have. Peggy McIntosh attempted to bring awareness to the unspo-ken privileges provided to white people by society. In her work, “White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack,” she identified unearned privileges granted to whites that are often “invisible” to whites them-selves, and which whites take for granted. Following is a list of some of these privileges (McIntosh, 1988):
● White people can go shopping alone and be pretty well assured that they will not be followed or harassed.
● White people have no problem finding housing to rent or purchase in an area they can afford and want to live in.
● White people can feel assured that their children will be given curricular materials in school that testify to the existence of their race.
● White people can go into any supermarket and find the staple foods that fit with their cultural traditions.
● When white people use checks, credit cards, or cash, they can be sure that their skin color is not being taken into account when their financial reli-ability is questioned.
● White people are never asked to speak for all white people.
● White people can go into a hairdresser’s shop and find someone who can cut their hair.
● White people in affluent neighborhoods are gen-erally confident that their neighbors will be neu-tral or pleasant to them.
● White people can assume that police officers will provide protection and assistance.
● White people can be sure that their race will not count against them if they need legal or medical help.
This work was shared in workshops, conferences, and classrooms; however, some individuals are now questioning the benefits for whites in acknowledging their white privilege. It is believed that to truly address white privilege, whites should go beyond recognition of white privilege, instead becoming more active in addressing social inequality (Margolin, 2015).
Hate CrimesHate crimes have been added to the penal codes in nearly every state in the United States. Hate crimes
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2 4 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
discrimination against arab americans and american muslimsFollowing the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, there have been a number of crimes against Arab Americans and American Muslims. These hate crimes have intensified in recent years in response to the terrorist activities of Al Qaeda and ISIS. Emert (2007) gives some examples:
In Texas, a Pakistani Muslim storeowner was murdered. In California, an Egyptian Christian was killed. In a Chicago suburb, hundreds of men and women chanting, “USA, USA” marched on a local mosque and were stopped by police. In Brooklyn, an Islamic school was pelted with rocks and bloody pork chops (Muslims are forbidden to eat pork). Fire-bombings of mosques and Islamic centers occurred in Chicago, Seattle, Texas and New York.
Mosques, Arab community centers, and Arab-owned businesses have been vandalized. Women and girls wearing the traditional Muslim head covering, the hijab, have been harassed and assaulted. As an example of this discrimination, Rev. Terry Jones, a Florida minister, announced in August 2010 that he was going to publicly burn a number of Qurans on the ninth anniversary of the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Rev. Jones said that he believes the Quran is evil because it espouses something other than biblical truth and because he (erroneously) believes it incites radical, violent behavior among Muslims. (After intense international opposition, Rev. Jones announced he was canceling the burning of Qurans.)
Stereotypes abound of Arab Americans, and they are mostly negative. The Western images of Arabs are of Ali Baba, Sinbad, the thief of Baghdad, white slaveowners, harem dwellers, and sheiks. The facts are that harems and polygamy have been abolished, for the most part, in the Arab world, and only a small number of Arab nations have “sheiks.” Arabs are almost always portrayed on TV or in movies as evil or foolish. One Sesame Street character, always dressed like an Arab, is always the one that teaches negative words like “danger.” In movies, they’re often portrayed as villains or financial backers of espionage plots.
It is important for all of us to remember what happened to Japanese Americans after Pearl Harbor was attacked in 1941. Emert (2007) notes,
After the unexpected attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, distrust, fear and anger against the 130,000 Japanese-Americans living in the United States at that time intensified, especially in California where an enemy invasion was anticipated. About 115,000 Japanese lived on the West Coast, and their presence was considered a security threat. Americans questioned the loyalty of these Japanese people even though 80,000 of them were second-generation, natural-born U.S. citizens.
There was fear that these Japanese-Americans would resort to sabotage or treason to aid America’s enemies.
Public leaders like the California Governor, Attorney General, and U.S. military commanders supported the idea of a mass evacuation of all Japanese from the West Coast. Beginning on March 22, 1942, approximately 110,000 Japanese were transported to 15 temporary assembly centers in California, Oregon, Washington and Arizona. Several months later, they were moved to 10 permanent relocation centres scattered throughout the country. These Japanese-Americans lost nearly everything they owned. They were forced to sell their homes and businesses at rock bottom prices.
In September 2001, after 9/11, the U.S. Senate passed a resolution calling for the protection of the “civil rights and civil liberties of all Americans, including Arab Americans and American Muslims” (Emert, 2007). Virtually all major Arab American organizations and American Muslim organizations have condemned the actions of Osama bin Laden’s militant fringe.
Some factual information about Arab Americans and American Muslims may be useful. There are about 3 million Arab Americans in the United States, which is about 1 percent of the American population. There are 22 separate Arab nations (Schaefer, 2015).
There’s no simple definition of who an “Arab” is. The word refers to those who speak the Arabic language, but almost every country’s version of Arabic is different from another’s (e.g., Jordanian Arabic is quite different from Algerian Arabic), and to make matters more complicated, several Arab countries have internal ethnic groups who speak a totally different form of Arabic or some non-Arabic language.
American Muslims and Arab Americans are different groups in the United States. There is some overlap between, these two groups, with some American Muslims being of Arab ancestry. Most Arab Americans are not Muslim, however, and most Muslim Americans are not of Arab background. Many Arab Americans are Christians, some are Hindu, and a few are agnostics or atheists. Arab Americans are an ethnic group, and Muslims are a religious group.
Islam, with approximately 1.6 million followers worldwide, is second to Christianity among the world’s religions (Schaefer, 2015). Schaefer notes that Christianity and Islam are faiths that are very similar:
Both are monotheistic (i.e., based on a single deity) and indeed worship the same God. Allah is the Arabic word for God and refers to the God of Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Both Christianity and Islam include a belief in prophets, an afterlife, and a judgment day. In fact, Islam recognizes Jesus as a prophet, though not the son of God. Islam reveres both the Old and New
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.2
(continued)
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 41
Testaments as integral parts of its tradition. Both faiths impose a moral code on believers, which varies from fairly rigid proscriptions for fundamentalists to relatively relaxed guidelines for liberals. (p. 246)
(Christianity and Islam are described more fully in Chapter 15.)As to the ethnic background of American Muslims in
the United States, Schaefer (2015, p. 249) gives the following estimates:
Based on the most recent studies, there are at least 2.6 million and perhaps as many as 3 million Muslims in
the United States. About two-thirds are U.S.-born citizens. In terms of ethnic and racial background, the more acceptable estimates still vary widely. Estimates range as follows:
● 20–42 percent African American, ● 24–33 percent South Asian (Afghan, Bangladeshi,
Indian, and Pakistani), ● 12–32 percent Arab, and ● 15–22 percent “other” (Bosnian, Iranian, Turk, and
White and Hispanic converts). (p. 249)
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.2 (continued)
are violent acts aimed at individuals or groups of a particular race, ethnicity, religion, sexual orien-tation, or gender. The laws also make it a crime to vandalize religious buildings and cemeteries or to in-timidate another person out of bias.
Examples of hate crimes include setting African American churches on fire, defacing a Jewish fam-ily’s home with swastikas and anti-Semitic graffiti, assaulting a gay college student, burning a cross on the lawn of an African American family, and van-dalism against Arab Americans. With hate crimes, judges can impose a higher sentence when they find that a crime was committed with a biased motive.
Race Is a Social ConceptAshley Montague (1964) considered the concept of race to be one of the most dangerous and tragic myths in our society. Race is erroneously believed by many to be a biological classification of people. Yet, surprisingly to some, there are no clearly delineating characteristics of any race. Throughout history, the genes of different societies and racial groups have occasionally been intermingled. No racial group has any unique or distinctive genes. In addition, biologi-cal differentiations of racial groups have gradually been diluted through various sociocultural factors. These factors include changes in preferences of de-sirable characteristics in mates, effects of different diets on those who reproduce, and such variables as wars and diseases in selecting those who will live to reproduce (Johnson, 1973).
Despite definitional problems, it is necessary to use racial categories in the social sciences. Race has
important (though not necessarily consistent) social meanings for people. In order to have a basis for racial classifications, social scientists have used a social, rather than a biological, definition. A social definition is based on the way in which members of a society clas-sify each other by physical characteristics. For exam-ple, a frequently used social definition of an African American is anyone who either displays overt African American physical characteristics or is known to have an African American ancestor (Schaefer, 2015).
A social definitional approach to classifying races sometimes results in different societies’ use of differ-ent definitions of race. For example, in the United States anyone who is known to have an African American ancestor is considered to be African American; in Brazil, anyone known to have a white ancestor is considered to be white (Schaefer, 2015).
Ethical Question 5.1
EP 1
Do you believe that some ethnic groups are more intelligent than other ethnic groups?
Race, according to Montague (1964), becomes a dangerous myth when people assume that physi-cal traits are linked with mental traits and cultural achievements. Every few years, it seems, some noted scientist stirs the country by making this erroneous as-sumption. For example, Herrnstein and Murray (1994)
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2 42 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
assert that whites, on the average, are more intelli-gent, because IQ tests show that whites average scores of 10 to 15 points higher than African Americans. Herrnstein and Murray’s findings have been sharply criticized by other authorities as falsely assuming that IQ is largely genetically determined (Lefrancois, 1996). These authorities contend that IQ is substantially influenced by environmental factors, and it is likely that the average achievement of African Americans, if given similar opportunities to realize their potenti-alities, would be the same as whites. Also, it has been charged that IQ tests are racially slanted. The tests ask the kinds of questions that whites are more familiar with and thereby more apt to answer correctly.
Johnson (1973) summarizes the need for an im-partial, objective view of the capacity of different racial groups to achieve:
Race bigots contend that, the cultural achievements of different races being so obviously unlike, i t fo l l ow s t h a t t h e i r ge n e t i c c a p a c i t i e s fo r achievements must be just as different. Nobody can discover the cultural capacities of any population or race . . . until there is equality of opportunities to demonstrate the capacities. (p. 50)
Most scientists, both physical and social, now be-lieve that in biological inheritance all races are alike in everything that really makes any difference (such as problem-solving capacities, altruistic tendencies, and communication capacities). With the exception of several very small, inbred, isolated, primitive tribes, all racial groups appear to show a wide distribution of every kind of ability. Any important race differ-ences that have been noted in personality, behavior, and achievement (e.g., high school graduation rates) appear to be due primarily to environmental factors.
Many Americans classify themselves as “mixed-race” or “multiracial,” as they have parents of different races. Tiger Woods (a noted golfer), for example, has a multiracial background, with a Caucasian, African American, Native American, and Asian heritage.
Institutional Values and Racism: Discrimination in SystemsIn the last four decades, institutional racism has be-come recognized as a major problem. Institutional racism refers to discriminatory acts and policies against a racial group that pervade the major macro
systems of society, including the legal, political, economic, and educational systems. Some of these discriminatory acts and policies are illegal, whereas others are not.
Institutional racism can best be understood through a systems perspective on discrimination. Institutional values form the foundation for macro-system poli-cies. These policies are enacted in organizations and communities. Here, we refer to institutional racism as a prevailing orientation demonstrated in policies and procedures throughout our entire culture. It is an all-encompassing term that envelopes institutional values, communities, and organizational macro systems.
In contrast to institutional racism is individual racism, which Barker (2003) defines as “the nega-tive attitudes one person has about all members of a racial or ethnic group, often resulting in overt acts such as name-calling, social exclusion, or violence” (p. 215). Carmichael and Hamilton (1967) make the following distinction between individual racism and institutional racism:
When white terrorists bomb a black church and kill five black children, that is an act of individual racism, widely deplored by most segments of society. But when in the same city . . . five hundred black babies die each year because of the lack of proper food, shelter, and medical facilities, and thousands more are destroyed and maimed physically, emotionally, and intellectually because of conditions of poverty and discrimination in the black community, that is a function of institutional racism. (p. 4)
Discrimination and Oppression in Organizational Macro SystemsInstitutional discrimination is the unfair treatment of an individual that is due to the established operat-ing procedures, policies, laws, or objectives of large organizations (such as governments, corporations, schools, police departments, and banks).
Discrimination is built, often unwittingly, into the very structure and form of our society. It is demon-strated by how organizational macro systems treat clients. The following examples reflect how agencies can engage in institutional discrimination:
● A family counseling agency with branch offices assigns its less skilled counselors and thereby pro-vides lower-quality services to an office located in a minority neighborhood.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 4 3
● A human services agency encourages white ap-plicants to request funds for special needs (e.g., clothing) or to use certain services (e.g., day care and homemaker services), whereas nonwhite cli-ents are not informed (or are less enthusiastically informed) of such services.
● A human services agency takes longer to process the requests of nonwhite for funds and services.
● A police department discriminates against non-white staff in terms of work assignments, hiring practices, promotion practices, and pay increases.
● A real estate agency has a pattern of showing white homebuyers houses in white neighbor-hoods and African American homebuyers houses in mixed or predominantly African American areas.
● A bank and an insurance company engage in so-called red-lining, which involves refusing to make loans or issue insurance in areas with large minor-ity populations.
● A probation and parole agency tends to ignore minor rule violations by white clients but seeks to return nonwhite parolees to prison for similar infractions.
● A mental health agency tends to label nonwhite clients “psychotic” while ascribing a less serious disorder to white clients.
● White staff at a family counseling center are encouraged by the executive board to provide intensive services to clients with whom they have a good relationship and are told to give less attention to clients “they aren’t hitting it off well with,” resulting in fewer services provided to nonwhite clients.
Whether these differences in treatment are under-taken consciously or not, they nevertheless represent institutional discrimination.
Discrimination and Oppression in Community Macro SystemsInstitutional racism also pervades community life. It is a contributing factor to the following: The unem-ployment rate for nonwhites has consistently been more than twice that for whites. The infant mortal-ity rate for nonwhites is nearly twice as high as for whites. The life expectancy for nonwhites is several years less than for whites. The average number of years of educational achievement for nonwhites is considerably less than for whites (Schaefer, 2015).
Many examples of institutional racism are found in the educational macro system. Schools in white neighborhoods generally have better facilities and more highly trained teachers than do those in mi-nority neighborhoods. Minority families are, on the average, less able to provide the hidden costs of free education (higher property taxes, transportation, class trips, clothing, and supplies); as a result, their children become less involved in the educational process. History texts in the past concentrated on achievements of white people and gave scant atten-tion to minorities. J. Henry (1967) wrote in the 1960s about the effects of such history on Native American children:
What is the effect upon the student, when he learns that one race, and one alone, is the most, the best, the greatest; when he learns that Indians were mere parts of the landscape and wilderness which had to be cleared out, to make way for the great “movement” of white population across the land; and when he learns that Indians were killed and forcibly removed from their ancient homelands to make way for adventurers (usually c a l l e d “ p i o n e e r i n g go l d m i n e rs ” ) , fo r l a n d grabbers (usually called “settlers”), and for illegal squatters on Indian-owned land (usually called “frontiersmen”)? What is the effect upon the young Indian child himself, who is also a student in the school system, when he is told that Columbus discovered America, that Coronado “brought civilization” to the Indian people, and that the Spanish missionaries provided havens of refuge for the Indians? Is it reasonable to assume that the student, of whatever race, will not discover at some time in his life that Indians discovered America thousands of years before Columbus set out upon his voyage; that Coronado brought death and destruction to the native peoples; and that the Spanish missionaries, in all too many cases, forcibly dragged Indians to the missions? (p. 22)
Since the 1960s and the civil rights movement, the true story of minorities and their experiences are be-ing better told.
Our criminal justice macro system also has ele-ments of institutional racism. Our justice system is supposed to be fair and nondiscriminatory. The very name of the system, justice, implies fairness and quality. Yet, in practice, racism is evident. Although African Americans compose only about 13 percent
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2 4 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of the population, they make up about 50 percent of the prison population (Schaefer, 2015). (There is considerable debate as to what extent this is due to racism as opposed to differential crime rates by race.) The average prison sentence for murder and kidnap-ping is longer for African Americans than for whites. Nearly half of those sentenced to death are African American (Schaefer, 2015). Police departments and district attorneys’ offices are more likely to enforce vigorously the kinds of laws broken by lower-income groups and minority groups than by middle- and up-per-class white groups. Poor people are substantially less likely to be able to post bail. As a result, they are forced to remain in jail until their trial, which often takes months or sometimes more than a year. Un-able to afford a well-financed defense (including the fees charged by the most successful criminal defense teams), they are more likely to be found guilty.
LO 2 Outline the Sources of Prejudice and Discrimination
Sources of Prejudice and DiscriminationNo single theory provides a complete picture of why racial and ethnic discrimination occur. By being ex-posed to a variety of theories, social workers should at least be better sensitized to the nature and sources of discrimination. The sources of discrimination come from inside and outside a person.
ProjectionProjection is a psychological defense mechanism in which one attributes to others characteristics that one is unwilling to recognize in oneself. Many people have personal traits they dislike in themselves. They desire to get rid of such traits, but this is not always possible. Such people may project some of these traits onto others (often to some other group in soci-ety), thus displacing the negative feelings they would otherwise direct at themselves. In the process, they then condemn those onto whom they have projected the traits.
For example, a minority group may serve as a projection of a prejudiced person’s fears and lusts. People who view African Americans as lazy or
preoccupied with sex may be projecting onto African Americans their own internal concerns about their industriousness or their sexual fantasies. While some whites view African Americans as promiscuous, his-torically it has generally been white men who forced African American women (particularly slaves) into sexual encounters. It appears many white males felt guilty about these sexual desires and adventures and dealt with their guilt by projecting their own lusts and sexual conduct onto African Americans.
Frustration-AggressionAnother psychological need satisfied by discrimina-tion is the release of tension and frustration. All of us at times become frustrated when we are unable to achieve or obtain something we desire. Sometimes we strike back at the source of frustration, but many times direct retaliation is not possible. For example, we are reluctant to tell our employers what we think of them when we feel we are being treated unfairly because we fear repercussions.
Some frustrated people displace their anger and aggression onto a scapegoat. The scapegoat may be a particular person or it may be a group of people. Similar to people who take out their job frustra-tions at home on their spouses or family pets, some prejudiced people vent their frustrations on minor-ity groups. (The term scapegoat derives from an ancient Hebrew ritual in which the goat was sym-bolically laden with the sins of the entire community and then chased into the wilderness. It “escaped,” hence the term scapegoat. The term was gradually broadened to apply to anyone who bears the blame for others.)
Countering Insecurity and InferiorityStill another psychological need that may be satis-fied through discrimination is the desire to counter feelings of insecurity or inferiority. Some insecure people seek to feel better about themselves by put-ting down another group. They then can tell them-selves that they are better than these people.
AuthoritarianismA classic work on the causes of prejudice is The Authoritarian Personality by Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, and Sanford (1950). Shortly
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 4 5
after World War II, these researchers studied the psychological causes of the development of Euro-pean fascism and concluded that a distinct type of personality was associated with prejudice and intol-erance. The authoritarian personality is inflexible and rigid and has a low tolerance for uncertainty. This type of personality has a great respect for author-ity figures and quickly submits to their will. Such a person highly values conventional behavior and feels threatened by unconventional behavior of oth-ers. In order to reduce this threat, such a personality labels unconventional people as being immature, in-ferior, or degenerate and thereby avoids any need to question his or her own beliefs and values. The au-thoritarian personality views members of minority groups as being unconventional, degrades them, and tends to express authoritarianism through prejudice and discrimination.
HistoryHistorical explanations can also be given for prejudice. Kornblum and Julian (2012) note that the groups now viewed by white prejudiced persons as being second class are groups that have been either conquered, enslaved, or admitted into our soci-ety on a subordinate basis. For example, African Americans were imported as slaves during our co-lonial period and stripped of human dignity. Native Americans were conquered, and their culture was viewed as inferior. Mexican Americans were allowed to enter this country primarily to do seasonal, low-paid farm work.
Competition and ExploitationOur society is highly competitive and materialistic. Individuals and groups compete daily with one an-other to acquire more of the available goods. These attempts to secure economic goods usually result in a struggle for resources and power. In our soci-ety, once whites achieved dominance, they then used (and still are using) their power to exploit nonwhites through cheap labor—for example, as sweatshop fac-tory laborers, migrant farmhands, maids, janitors, and bellhops.
Members of the dominant group know they are treating the subordinate group as inferior and unequal. To justify such discrimination, they de-velop an ideology (set of beliefs) that their group is
superior, and therefore that it is right and proper that they have more rights, goods, and so on. Some-times they assert that God selected their group to be dominant. At the same time, they assign inferior traits to the subordinate group and conclude that the minority needs and deserves less because it is bio-logically inferior. Throughout history in most soci-eties, the dominant group (which has greater power and wealth) has sought to maintain the status quo by keeping those who have the least in an inferior position.
Socialization PatternsPrejudice is also a learned phenomenon and is trans-mitted from generation to generation through so-cialization processes. Our culture has stereotypes of what different minority group members “ought to be” and the ways they “ought to behave” in relation-ships with members of the majority group. These stereotypes provide norms against which a child learns to judge persons, things, and ideas. Prejudice, to some extent, is developed through the same pro-cesses by which we learn to be religious or patriotic, to appreciate and enjoy art, or to develop our value system. Prejudice, at least in certain segments in our society, is thus a facet of the normative system of our culture.
Belief in the One True ReligionSome people are raised to believe that their religion is the one true religion—that they will go to heaven, while everyone who believes in a different religion is a heathen who will be eternally damned. A person with such a belief system comes to the conclusion that he or she is one of “God’s chosen few.” Feeling superior to others often leads a person to devalue them as “heathens” and then to treat them in an in-ferior way. Belief in the “one true religion” has led to numerous wars between societies, each of which thought its religion was superior. Such societies thought they were justified in spreading their chosen religion by any possible means, including by physi-cal force. This belief may be one of the most crucial determinants in developing an attitudinal system of racial prejudice. (It should be noted, as elaborated on later in this chapter and in Chapter 15, that re-ligion has a number of beneficial components for many people.)
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2 4 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Ethical Questions 5.2
EP 1
If a social worker believes his or her religion is the one true religion, can that social worker fully accept clients who are members of some other religious faith? If your answer is no, do you believe that person should seek a different career?
White SupremacyWhite supremacy is the belief, and promotion of the belief, that white people are superior to people of other racial backgrounds. The term is sometimes used to describe a political ideology that advocates the so-cial and political dominance of whites. The belief in white supremacy has frequently been a factor that has led whites to discriminate against people of color.
White supremacy was a dominant belief in the United States before the American Civil War and for decades after Reconstruction. In some parts of the United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised, and barred from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the twentieth century. Many U.S. states banned in-terracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws until 1967, when these laws were declared unconstitu-tional. White lenders often viewed Native Americans, Chinese Americans, and other people of color as in-ferior. Bradley (2009) notes that most U.S. presidents who were in office prior to the twentieth century (and in the early twentieth century) believed in white supremacy—one of those presidents was Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln believed that whites and blacks could not coexist in the same nation. He promoted his idea of colonization—that is, resettling blacks in foreign countries. He urged blacks be resettled in Central America, because of the similarity of climate conditions to Africa (Magness & Page, 2011).
White supremacy was also a dominant belief in many other countries, as in South Africa under apartheid. The Ku Klux Klan still advocates and as-serts white supremacy.
Evaluation of Discrimination TheoriesNo single theory explains all causes of prejudices be-cause prejudices have many origins. Taken together,
however, they identify a number of causative fac-tors. All theories assert that the causative factors of prejudice are in the personality and experiences of the person holding the prejudice, and not in the character of the group against whom the prejudice is directed.
A novel experiment documenting that prejudice does not stem from contact with the people to-ward whom prejudice is directed was conducted by Eugene Hartley (1946). Hartley gave his subjects a list of prejudiced responses to Jews and African Americans and to three groups that did not even exist: Wallonians, Pireneans, and Danireans. Preju-diced responses included such statements as, “All Wallonians living here should be expelled.” The re-spondents were asked to state their agreement or disagreement with these prejudiced statements. The experiment showed that most of those who were prejudiced against Jews and African Americans were also prejudiced against people whom they had never met or heard about.
Closely related to the theories about the sources of racial and ethnic prejudice and discrimination is the conceptualization that compares racist think-ing to criminal thinking. Spotlight 5.3 explores the question “Is racial discrimination based on criminal thinking?”
LO 3 Summarize the Effects and Costs of Discrimination and Oppression and Describe the Effects of Discrimination on Human Growth and Development
Impacts of Social and Economic Forces: The Effects and Costs of Discrimination and OppressionRacial discrimination is a barrier in our competitive society to obtaining the necessary resources to lead a contented and comfortable life. Being discriminated against due to race makes it more difficult to obtain adequate housing, financial resources, a quality edu-cation, employment, adequate health care and other services, equal justice in civil and criminal cases, and so on.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 47
is racial discrimination Based on criminal thinking?Why do people discriminate on the basis of racial differences? Why do these people believe that it is proper to do so? One way of analyzing the problem of racial discrimination is to look at the thought processes that lead to racism. Benjamin’s (1991) theory that racism is “a process of justification for the domination, exploitation, and control of one racial group by another” supports the idea that specific thought processes are involved. One such set of thoughts that has been used to justify racism provides the basis for social Darwinism, the belief that the “superior race” must dominate all other races in order to ensure survival.
Benjamin’s definition links the thought processes behind racism to widely accepted theories of criminal thinking. These theories attribute to the criminal personality certain thinking patterns that differ significantly from the thought processes of noncriminals—and that the criminal uses to justify criminal activities (Ellis, 1957; Freyhan, 1955; Keniston, 1965; Yochelson & Samenow, 1976). If we accept the American ideals of human dignity, freedom, and justice for all, then the idea that one group should dominate, exploit, and control another group is maladaptive. Thus, we can theorize that the thinking patterns that enable the racist to justify these coercive acts must be flawed. Not only do such patterns constitute “errors” in thinking from the “perspective of responsibility” (Yochelson & Samenow, 1976, p. 251), they also are used to strip others of their personal dignity and freedom and cause these victims to receive unequal treatment.
An Overview of Criminal ThinkingThe concept of criminal thinking (Yochelson & Samenow, 1976) derives from the theory of rational therapy (self-talk) developed by Albert Ellis (1957). It posits that persons who commit crimes hold certain irrational beliefs that allow them to tell themselves that their behavior is acceptable. For example, an accountant who embezzles from her employer may rationalize her crime by telling herself that she deserves the money because she has been underpaid for the last seven years; or that it is a temporary loan that she expects to repay once she has become financially stable again; or that the employer is so wealthy that the small amount she is taking will never be missed.
Treatment programs to rehabilitate juvenile delinquents, sex offenders, domestic abuse perpetrators, and others who make excuses for their maladaptive behaviors use various terms for this type of rationalization. For the purposes of this discussion, they can be thought to be synonymous: errors in thinking, criminal thinking, faulty thinking, and deviant thinking. During a decade of study of the criminal personality, Dr. Samuel Yochelson defined and conceptualized a number of errors in thinking that he found to be common among the criminal population (Yochelson & Samenow, 1976).
Yochelson’s definitions and later variations (Bays & Freeman-Longo, 1989) are paraphrased and summarized as follows:
Power thrust: The criminal inflates low self-esteem by viewing himself or herself as an all-powerful, unique individual whose needs must come first and who can force others to meet those needs. The criminal rejects legitimate authority.
Ownership: An extreme form of control over others based on the criminal’s attitude that his or her rights are unlimited; allows the criminal to disregard all personal and social boundaries.
Failure to consider injury to others: The criminal minimizes or denies injuring victims by an immediate criminal act or its far-reaching effects on the victims and others in society in order to maintain his or her self-image.
Lack of empathy: The criminal can maintain feelings of uniqueness only by refusing to consider the experiences or feelings of others.
Good-person self-image: The criminal has a distorted view of self as a good person who can do no wrong and may offer examples of “goodness” as evidence.
Closed-channel thinking: The secretiveness, closed-minded, and self-righteous attitude of the criminal do not allow for an open channel of communication or for being receptive to other points of view. Criminals acknowledge the faults of others but are not self-critical.
Victim stance: The criminal avoids taking responsibility for behavior by blaming others and by viewing himself or herself as a victim of others; often includes blaming the victim.
Disregard for responsible performance: The criminal’s energy and motivation are directed toward self-serving goals rather than socially responsible activities. The criminal avoids and disregards personal obligations in order to maintain a power position.
Lack of a time perspective: Refers to several aberrations in time concepts, including the failure to make positive changes based on past experiences and the tendency to live for the moment (instant gratification) rather than anticipate future benefits or outcomes.
Fear of fear: Fear reactions are not used as a guide to responsible living, but are taken as threats to the criminal’s self-esteem. Criminals often have irrational fears.
Lack of trust: Trust of others is seen as a weakness and interferes with the criminal’s need for power and control.
Thinking Errors Common to Racist BeliefsIn the following discussion of racist thinking, the term racist will not be limited to bigots and white supremacists who hold
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.3
(continued)
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2 4 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
extreme beliefs. The term will include everyone whose beliefs and thoughts contain elements of racial or ethnic prejudice and/or who have supported racial or ethnic discrimination to any degree. We will use the set of “thinking errors” that were just described as the standard by which we can test our theory of the racist’s flawed, or criminal, thinking.
Three of these thinking errors account for many of the severest forms of domination, exploitation, and control of minority populations. They are the power thrust, ownership, and a failure to consider injury to others. Everything we know about racial discrimination allows us to acknowledge that it is based on a power thrust—control of one person over others and a resulting sense of power or triumph (Yochelson & Samenow, 1976). Slaveholding is ownership by definition, and it is human control carried to the extreme. White ownership of black populations did not end with emancipation; white society’s sustained attitude of control over African Americans continued well into the 1960s. Yochelson and Samenow (1976) referred to the criminal’s view of people as “pawns or checkers waiting for me to deal with them as I wish” (p. 381), and this aptly describes the real-life effect of institutional discrimination—especially as it is experienced by people of color in the lower socioeconomic levels. Whenever people of color are forced to suffer (by comparison to their white counterparts) from lower grades of service, fewer opportunities for advancement, higher rates of infant mortality, longer periods of incarceration, and fewer options for neighborhoods in which they may live, then a racist society has met the criteria for the type of criminal thinking referred to as failure to consider injury to others.
Oppression of people of color continues because of two additional errors in thinking on the part of the racist: a lack of empathy and a distorted self-image. If we believe that others are inferior to us, it reduces our motivation to empathically consider how they might feel or otherwise be affected by unequal treatment. Racists, like criminals, put considerable effort into building a good-person self-image. The good-person self-image was held by slaveowners who asserted that they treated their slaves well. This self-image is reclaimed by white society every time it adopts a benevolent social policy, such as affirmative action. We would all like to view ourselves as good people. In fact, social work counselors are taught specific skills that allow them to help individuals strengthen their sense of self-worth. The error in thinking occurs when individuals hold this belief on the basis of a few good deeds and do not acknowledge their other destructive behaviors.
Is the white racist guilty of closed-channel thinking? We don’t have to belong to a white supremacist group to be self-righteous and closed-minded. Many of us are guilty of not being particularly open in either our thinking or our communication with others, particularly when we feel that our viewpoint is justified. Anyone who has tried to reason with a bigoted relative or colleague is aware of the impossibility of finding a receptive listener. Closed-channel thinkers tend to
overgeneralize and to see the world in absolute terms: good and bad, right and wrong, black and white.
Racists also justify their narrow ethnocentric viewpoint by adopting a victim stance. This can be done by assuming an attitude of being victimized by “heavy tax burdens that force us to support people who are taking advantage of us—and who are undeserving.” Racists blame the politicians and government for making people of color dependent on social welfare programs. They blame the victim by classifying people of color as lazy, illiterate, and irresponsible; and they point to high rates of school failure, unemployment, illegitimate births, and crime in the inner cities to support this characterization. Society has created a no-win situation for oppressed people of color, because many whites also believe themselves to be victimized by people of color who compete for their jobs, their educational scholarships, and their tax dollars to upgrade housing and public services in the inner cities. The victim perspective is all-encompassing and self-serving. It is used by the racist to justify discrimination and promotes a disregard for responsible performance. After all, if we can convince ourselves that people of color are already taking advantage of a too-benevolent society, then there is no need to support social welfare programs or to make any effort toward improving their opportunities for success.
Racists demonstrate a lack of time perspective in their failure, or refusal, to consider the long-term benefits of providing all people with equal opportunities to be successful, contributing members of society. Again, this is a self-serving attitude that places the present needs of a few above the future outcomes of many. Prejudice, racism, and racial discrimination are based on a fear of fear. In this case, there is an irrational fear that equality, shared power, integrated living, and racial blending (intermarriage) somehow threaten the worth and well-being of white society. A lack of trust, which is implicit in all areas of racism, fosters the desire of many in the dominant mainstream society to retain their power position.
From these comparisons, it appears that racist thinking shares many common elements with criminal thinking. In addition, it seems likely that racist thinking is not limited to the “prejudiced discriminators” (Merton, 1949) who openly embrace white supremacy. It is employed as well by those of us who fall into the less obvious categories of “prejudiced nondiscriminators” and “unprejudiced discriminators” (Merton, 1949). In many regions of the United States, a pervasive atmosphere of distrust fed by irrational fears has fostered a racist mentality among the general population. The same errors in thinking that are attributed to the criminal personality are used by racists to justify the domination, exploitation, and control of people of color by the mainstream white society.
Source: Patricia Danielson, social worker, Jefferson County Human Services Dept., Jefferson, WI, 1995.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.3 (continued)
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 49
Discrimination also has heavy psychological costs. All of us have to develop a sense of identity—who we are and how we fit into a complex, swiftly changing world. Ideally, it is important that we form a positive self-concept and strive to obtain worthy goals. Yet, according to Cooley’s (1902) “looking-glass self,” our idea of who we are and what we are is largely determined by the way others relate to us. When members of a minority group are treated by the majority group as if they are inferior, second-class citizens, it is substantially more difficult for such members to develop a positive identity. Thus, people who are the objects of discrimination en-counter barriers to developing their full potential as human beings.
Young children of groups who are the victims of discrimination are likely to develop low self-esteem at an early age. African American children who have been subjected to discrimination even display a preference for white dolls and white playmates over black (Schaefer, 2015).
Pinderhughes (1982) has noted that the history of oppression of African Americans, combined with racism and exclusion, has produced a “victim system.”
A victim system is a circular feedback process that exhibits properties such as stability, predictability, and identity that are common to all systems. This particular system threatens self-esteem and reinforces problematic responses in communities, families, and individuals. The feedback works as follows: Barriers to opportunity and education limit the chance for achievement, employment, and attainment of skills. This limitation can, in turn, lead to poverty or stress in relationships, which interferes with adequate performance of family roles. Strains in family roles cause problems in individual growth and development and limit the opportunities of families to meet their own needs or to organize to improve their communities. Communities limited in resources (jobs, education, housing, etc.) are unable to support families properly and the community all too often becomes an active disorganizing influence, a breeder of crime and other pathology, and a cause of even more powerlessness. (p. 109)
Discrimination also has high costs for the ma-jority group. It impairs intergroup cooperation and communication. Discrimination is also a factor in
contributing to social problems among minorities— for example, high crime rates, emotional problems, alcoholism, drug abuse—all of which have cost bil-lions of dollars in social programs. It has been ar-gued that discrimination is a barrier to collective action (e.g., unionization) among whites and non-whites (particularly people in the lower-income classes), and therefore is a factor in perpetuating low-paying jobs and poverty. Less affluent whites who could benefit from collective action are hurt.
The effects of discrimination are even reflected in life expectancy. The life expectancy of nonwhites is six years less than that of whites in the United States (Schaefer, 2015). The fact is that nonwhites tend to die earlier than whites because they tend to receive inferior health care and because they generally earn less money, which results in a higher probability of a less nutritious diet and of living in deteriorating housing.
Finally, discrimination in the United States un-dermines some of our nation’s political goals. Many other nations view us as hypocritical when we advo-cate human rights and equality. In order to make an effective argument for human rights on a worldwide scale, we must first put our own house in order by eliminating racial and ethnic discrimination. Few Americans realize the extent to which racial crimi-nation damages our international reputation. Non-white foreign diplomats to America often complain about being victims of discrimination because they are mistaken for being members of American minor-ity groups. With most of the nations of the world being nonwhite, our racist practices severely damage our influence and prestige.
Stereotyping and Multiculturalism: A PerspectiveThe National Association of Social Worker’s Code of Ethics (2008) states,
Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination of exploitation of, and discrimination against any person, group, or class on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, or mental or physical disability.
Similar to most other social work texts, this text presents descriptive information about these groups.
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2 5 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
It has traditionally been thought that presenting such descriptive information will increase social worker’s capacities to be culturally competent with these groups.
It is important to note that some social work au-thorities are now raising questions about whether presenting descriptive information about groups leads to stereotypes and prejudices against these groups (Mor Barak, 2005). For example, if we de-scribe women as being more emotional than men, and men as being more rational than women, such a perception and categorization may steer expecta-tions for an individual or a group. Such perceptions and categorizations are often inaccurate when ap-plied to an individual member of a group, as well as to the group as a whole.
Another example may help further clarify this perspective. There is a perception that Asian Ameri-cans are a “model minority” because they are viewed as an “overachieving, supersuccessful ethnic group without significant problems” (Chicago Tribune, 1998). If we perceive Asian Americans as over-achieving and supersuccessful, it raises a number of questions that may negatively affect those labeled as Asian Americans. A few of these questions are the following: Will it lead Asian American children to feel undue pressure to be super-successful? Will it lead those Asian Americans who are not supersuc-cessful to view themselves as “failures”? Will social service agencies and policy makers tend to ignore developing human service programs for Asian Americans because they are already perceived to be “supersuccessful”? Will providers of services (such as dentists, car dealers, plumbers, electricians) tend to charge Asian Americans more because they are apt to be perceived as “wealthy”?
The stereotyping of Asian Americans as being overachieving and supersuccessful misrepresents the diverse experiences of Asian Americans by glossing over huge differences within a group of people who come from more than two dozen countries, most of which have their own distinct language and culture. In this regard, Ziaddlin Sardar (2001, pp. 14–16) notes,
White people . . . look at me and exclaim: “Surely, you’re Asian.” However, there is no such thing as an Asian. Asia is not a race or identity: it is a continent. Even in Asia, where more than half of the world’s population lives, no one calls him or herself
“Asian.” . . . In the U.S., the Asian label is attached to Koreans, Filipinos, and Chinese. In Britain, we do not use the term Asian to describe our substantial communities of Turks, Iranians, or Indonesians, even though these countries are in Asia.
There is a danger that presenting descriptive information about a group may lead to negative stereotyping and then overt discrimination. For ex-ample, descriptive information indicates African Americans tend to have higher rates (compared with whites) of poverty, homelessness, births outside of marriage, dropping out of school, criminal arrests, and criminal convictions (Schaefer, 2015). Does such information lead to the expectation by non-African Americans that African American individuals they meet are apt to “fit” such descriptive information? For example, the poverty rate for African Americans is about 20 percent, whereas for whites it is 10 per-cent (Schaefer, 2015). Will this lead non-African Americans to expect that African American indi-viduals they encounter are apt to be “poor”? What may be ignored by the non-African American is that most African Americans (80%) are not living in poverty.
This text will continue to use the traditional ap-proach of presenting descriptive information about the diverse categories identified in the Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) for two reasons. First, most social work educators deduce that the EPAS was written with the expectation that descriptive information will be presented in the so-cial work curriculum on these categories. Second, the social work authorities who are concerned about the presentation of descriptive information have not ar-rived at a new definition of diversity that enables us to develop a knowledge base of information about the diverse groups identified in the EPAS who have been victimized in the past (and during the present time) by discrimination. The authors of this text, however, urge readers to be aware of the dangers of stereotypes being generated by descriptive informa-tion about the diverse groups identified in this text.
An additional caveat about diversity will be men-tioned. Everyone has multicultural diversity. We differ from one another in such variables as age, economic status, education, family type, gender, per-sonality type, ethnicity, religion, geographic origin, sexual orientation, communication types, native-born or immigrant status, attire, language, political
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 51
views, physical abilities, lifestyle, and so forth. There-fore, when we meet someone who, for example, is Japanese American, it is essential to recognize that there are many other facets to that individual in ad-dition to his or her ethnicity.
It is impossible in this text to present information on all the types and forms of diversity. If we con-sider ethnicity alone, there are literally thousands of different populations. For example, there are about 500 different Native American tribes in the United States, each with its distinctive culture. Therefore, we will present descriptive information on only a few il-lustrative groups.
Intersectionality of Multiple FactorsEducational Policy and Accreditation Standards (Council on Social Work Education, 2015) states,
“The dimensions of diversity are understood as the intersectionality of multiple factors including but not limited to age, class, color, culture, disability and ability, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression, immigration status, marital status, political ideology, race, religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status.”
Intersectionality holds that the classical models of oppression within society (such as those based on race, ethnicity, religion, gender, class, age, or disabil-ity) do not act independently of one another; instead, these forms of oppression interrelate, creating a sys-tem of oppression that reflects the “intersection” of multiple forms of discrimination. Intersectionality is a theory to analyze how social and cultural catego-ries interwine. For example, intersectionality asserts there are vast differences in the life experiences of an African American male, 57 years old, upper class, and healthy, as compared to an African American female, 75 years old, indigent, and legally blind.
In working with clients, social workers need to view individuals in terms of “intersectionality.”
The Effects of Discrimination on Human Growth and DevelopmentThe effects of discrimination will be illustrated by examining the research conducted on African Amer-icans, the largest racial minority group, composing
about 13 percent of the population in the United States. We begin by examining some background material on the history and culture of African Americans in our society.
History and Culture of African AmericansThe United States has always been a racist coun-try. Although our country’s founders talked about freedom, dignity, equality, and human rights, our economy before the Civil War depended heavily on slavery.
Many slaves came from cultures that had well-developed art forms, political systems, family pat-terns, religious beliefs, and economic systems. However, their home culture was not European, and therefore, slaveowners viewed their cultural patterns as being of no consequence. They prohibited slaves from practicing and developing their art, language, religion, and family life. For want of practice, their former culture soon died in America.
The life of a slave was harsh. Slaves were viewed not as human beings but as chattel to be bought and sold. Long, hard days were spent working in the fields, with the profits of their labor going to their white owners. Whippings, mutilations, and hang-ings were commonly accepted control practices. The impetus to enslave African Americans was not simply racism because many whites believed that it was to their economic advantage to have a cheap supply of labor. Cotton growing, in particular, was thought to require a large labor force that was also cheap and docile. Marriages among slaves were not recognized by law, and slaves were often sold with little regard to the effects on marital and family ties. Throughout the slavery period and even after it, Af-rican Americans were discouraged from demonstrat-ing intelligence, initiative, or ambition. For a period of time, it was illegal to teach African Americans to read or write.
Some authorities (Henderson & Kim, 1980) have noted that opposition to the spread of slavery pre-ceding the Civil War was primarily due to northern fears of competition from slave labor and the rapidly increasing migration of African Americans to the North and West, rather than to moral concern for human rights and equality. Few whites at the time understood or believed in the principle of racial equality—not even Abraham Lincoln, who believed that African Americans were inferior to whites.
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2 52 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Following the Civil War, the federal government failed to develop a comprehensive program of eco-nomic and educational aid to African Americans. As a result, most African Americans returned to being economically dependent on the same planters in the South who had held them in bondage. Within a few years, laws were passed in the southern states pro-hibiting interracial marriages and requiring racial segregation in schools and public places.
A rigid caste system in the South hardened into a system of oppression known as Jim Crow laws. The system prescribed how African Americans were supposed to act in the presence of whites, as-serted white supremacy, embraced racial segrega-tion, and denied political and legal rights to African Americans. African Americans who opposed Jim Crow laws were subjected to burnings, beatings, and lynchings. Jim Crow laws were used to teach African Americans to view themselves as inferior and to be servile and passive in interactions with whites.
World War II opened up new employment op-portunities for African Americans. A large migra-tion of African Americans from the South began. Greater mobility afforded by wartime conditions led to upheavals in the traditional caste system. Many African Americans served in the armed forces dur-ing this war, fought and died for their country, and yet their country maintained segregated facilities. Awareness of the disparity between the ideal and reality led many people to try to improve race rela-tions, not only for domestic justice and peace, but to answer criticism from abroad. With each gain in race relations, more African Americans were encouraged to press for their rights.
A major turning point in African American his-tory was the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which ruled that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Since 1954, numerous organized efforts have been made by both African Americans and certain seg-ments of the white population to secure equal rights and opportunities for African Americans. Attempts to change deeply entrenched racist attitudes and prac-tices have produced much turmoil: the burning of many inner cities in the late 1960s, the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968, and clashes between African American militant groups and the police. There have also been significant advances. Wide-ranging civil rights legislation protecting rights in ar-eas such as housing, voting, employment, and use of
public transportation and facilities has been passed. During the riots in 1968, the National Advisory Com-mission on Civil Disorders (Gelman, 1988) warned that our society was careening “toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal” (p. 19).
The United States today is not the bitterly segre-gated society that the riot commission envisioned. African Americans and whites now more often work together and lunch together—yet few really count the other as friends.
We, as a nation, have come a long way since the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in 1954. The election of Barack Obama as president in 2008 is a clear ex-ample of increased respect that African Americans are receiving in the United States. But we still have a long way to go before we eliminate African Ameri-can poverty and oppression. Living conditions in some African American communities remain as bleak as they were when our inner cities erupted in the late 1960s.
Two developments have characterized the socio-economic circumstances of African Americans in recent years. A middle class has emerged that is bet-ter educated, better paid, and better housed than any group of African Americans that has gone before it. However, as middle-class African Americans move to better neighborhoods, they leave behind those who are living in poverty. The group that has been left behind generates a disproportionate share of the social pathology that is associated with a deteriorat-ing urban neighborhood—including high rates of crime, unemployment, drug abuse, school dropouts, births outside of marriage, and families receiving public assistance.
More than half of all African American children are being raised in single-parent families (Schaefer, 2015). However, many of the children living in single-parent families are living in family structures composed of some variation of the extended family. Many single-parent families move in with relatives during adversity, including economic adversity. In addition, African American families of all levels rely on relatives to care for their children while they work.
Schaefer (2015) summarizes five strengths iden-tified by the National Urban League that allow African American families to function effectively in a racist society:
1. Strong kinship bonds. Blacks are more likely than whites to care for children and the elderly in an extended family network.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 5 3
2. A strong work orientation. Poor blacks are more likely to be working, and poor black families of-ten include more than one wage earner.
3. Adaptability of family roles. In two-parent fami-lies, the egalitarian pattern of decision making is the most common. The self-reliance of black women who are the primary wage earners best il-lustrates this adaptability.
4. Strong achievement orientation. Working-class blacks indicate a greater desire for their children to attend college than working-class whites. Even a majority of low-income African Americans de-sire to attend college.
5. A strong religious orientation. Black churches since the time of slavery have been the source of many significant grassroots organizations.
While it is a reality that many African American families are headed by single mothers, it would be a serious error to view such family structures as inher-ently pathological. A single parent with good parent-ing skills, along with a supportive extended family, can lead to healthy family functioning.
Many African Americans have had the historical experience of being subjected to negative evaluations by school systems, social welfare agencies, health-care institutions, and the justice system. Because of their past experiences, African Americans are likely to view such institutions with apprehension. Schools, for example, have erroneously perceived African Americans as being less capable of developing cogni-tive skills. Such perceptions about school failure are often a self-fulfilling prophecy. If African American children are expected to fail in school systems, teach-ers are likely to put forth less effort in challenging them to learn, and African American children may then put forth less effort to learn, resulting in a lower level of achievement.
Some of the attitudes and behaviors exhibited by African Americans who seek services from white so-cial agencies are often labeled resistant. However, the attitudes and behaviors are better viewed as attempts at coping with powerlessness and racism. For exam-ple, if there are delays in the provision of services, African Americans may convey apathy or disparage the agency because they interpret the delay as being due to racism; they then respond in ways they have learned in the past to handle discrimination.
In the summer of 2013, after George Zimmer-man’s acquittal for the shooting death of 17-year-old
Trayvon Martin in Florida, the “Black Lives Matter (BLM)” movement began. BLM campaigns against violence toward black people. It regularly organizes protests around the deaths of black people in kill-ings by law enforcement officers, and broader is-sues of police brutality, racial profiling, and racial inequality in the U.S. criminal justice system. BLM claims inspiration from the African American civil rights movement, the Black Power movement, the 1980s Black Feminist movement, the anti-Apartheid movement, LGBTQ social movements, Occupy Wall Street, and hip hop.
Effects of Discrimination on Development of Self-ConceptThe term self-concept refers to the positive and nega-tive thoughts and feelings that one has toward one-self. It is often used interchangeably with such terms as self-image, sense of self, self-esteem, and identity. A positive self-concept is a key element in school achievement, in positive social interactions with oth-ers, and in emotional, social, and intellectual growth (Santrock, 2008).
Solomon (1983) notes that if African American adults accept society’s label of inferiority, they are likely to convey such thoughts and feelings to their children. The children are likely not only to develop a negative self-concept but also to put less effort into developing cognitive skills and school achievement. Because of low self-esteem and underdeveloped cognitive skills they are less likely to develop inter-personal and technical skills, which then results in having difficulties in social interactions and to being restricted in adulthood to low-paying, low-skill jobs. The vicious circle is then completed when such dif-ficulties confirm and reinforce feelings of inferiority and of negative value, feelings that are then passed on to their children.
Numerous studies have been conducted on the extent to which discrimination adversely affects self-concept development in African American chil-dren. Very significantly, these studies indicate that the African American child’s concept of self does not necessarily have to be impaired by racism. Con-cludes Powell (1983),
Afro-Americans have survived a harsh system of slavery, repression, and racism. Although there have been casualties, there have been many more
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2 5 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
survivors, achievers, and victors. The cultural heritage of coping with adversity and overcoming has been passed on from generation to generation, laced with stories of those with remarkable courage and fortitude. (p. 73)
Given the pervasiveness of racism and discrimi-nation in our society, why is it that many African American children overcome these obstacles to self-concept development and develop a fairly positive sense of self-esteem? The reason appears to be that every person is embedded simultaneously in at least two systems: One is the larger society, and the other is one’s immediate social and physical environment.
The latter environment includes family members, other relatives, peers, friends, and neighbors. One’s immediate environment appears to be the predomi-nant system in shaping one’s self-concept. It appears that the child who is loved, accepted, and supported in his or her immediate environment comes to love and respect himself or herself as someone worthy of love.
African American children, as they grow older, learn of the larger society’s devaluation. Practically all African American children are aware by age 7 or 8 of the social devaluation placed on their racial group (Schaefer, 2015). But awareness of this devaluation does not necessarily extend to the African American child’s self-evaluation. The sense of self developed in the immediate environment acts as a buffer against the potential devaluation by the larger society.
Certainly, racism has the potential for adverse ef-fects on self-esteem development in African Ameri-can children. Despite racism in our economic, political, and social structures, however, African American families have not only survived but have also interacted with their children in ways that foster the development of a positive identity. Celebrations such as Kwanzaa (see Spotlight 5.4) are ways of pro-moting pride for African Americans in their racial identity.
The Afrocentric Perspective and WorldviewAfrican American culture has numerous compo-nents: elements from traditional African culture; elements from slavery, Reconstruction, and subse-quent exposure to racism and discrimination; and elements from mainstream white culture. An emerg-ing perspective is the Afrocentric perspective (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996), which acknowledges African
culture and expressions of African beliefs, values, in-stitutions, and behaviors. It recognizes that African Americans have retained to some degree a number of elements of African life and values.
The Afrocentric perspective asserts that the use of Eurocentric theories of human behavior to explain the behavior and ethos of African Americans is of-ten inappropriate. Eurocentric theories of human behavior were developed in European and Anglo-American cultures. Eurocentric theorists have his-torically vilified people of African descent and other people of color. Such theorists have explicitly or im-plicitly claimed that people of African descent were pathological or inferior in their social, personality, or moral development (Schiele, 1996). The origins of this denigration can be found in the slave trade, as slave traders and slaveowners were pressed to justify the enslavement of Africans. The fallout of Eurocen-tric theories is the portrayal of the culture of people of African descent as having contributed little of value to world development and human history.
The Afrocentric perspective also seeks to dispel the negative distortions about people of African ancestry by legitimizing and disseminating a world-view that goes back thousands of years and that exists in the hearts and minds of many people of African descent today. Worldview involves one’s perceptions of oneself in relation to other people, objects, institutions, and nature. The worldviews of African Americans are shaped by unique and impor-tant experiences, such as racism and discrimination, an African heritage, traditional attributes of the African American family and community life, and a strong religious orientation.
The Afrocentric perspective also seeks to promote a worldview that will facilitate human and societal transformation toward moral, spiritual, and human-istic ends. It seeks to persuade people of different cultural and ethnic groups that they share a mutual interest in this regard. The Afrocentric perspective rejects the idea that the individual can be understood separately from others in his or her social group. It emphasizes a collective identity that encourages sharing, cooperation, and social responsibility.
The Afrocentric perspective also emphasizes the importance of spirituality, which includes moral development and attaining meaning and identity in life. It views the major sources of human problems in the United States as being oppression and alien-ation. Oppression and alienation are generated not
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 55
Kwanzaa
Kwanzaa means “first fruits of the harvest” in Swahili. Kwanzaa is a seven-day festival observed by some African Americans in late December and early January. It is not a substitute for Christmas, and it is a nonreligious celebration. Many people who celebrate Kwanzaa also celebrate Christmas. Inspired by a traditional African harvest festival, it was originated in 1966 by M. Ron Karenga, a Los Angeles-based activist, to increase awareness of African heritage and encourage the following seven qualities, which are stated in Swahili and English:
Umoja (unity). African Americans strive for unity within family, community, and the world as a whole.
Kujichagulia (self-determination). African Americans define themselves and have the determination not to accept or internalize negative definitions.
Ujima (collective work and responsibility). African Americans live, work, and are responsible for harmonizing personal wants and needs with the collective wants and needs of the race.
Ujamaa (cooperative economics). African Americans become their own economic bosses through owning and supporting African American businesses.
Nia (purpose). African Americans contribute distinct gifts to the world, and they propose to develop those gifts and talents.
Kuumba (creativity). African Americans are creative, and all that they touch is made more beautiful through the contact.
Imani (faith). African Americans remain alive, giving, and compassionate people because of their faith that, though African Americans suffer in their todays, they will succeed in their tomorrows.
Kwanzaa is a time to rededicate efforts to putting these principles into daily practice. Each day during the festival in the homes of many celebrants, a family member discusses one of the principles. The festival seeks to unite and empower African Americans in joyous testimony that they are a distinct people with a specific culture and perspective. Celebrants light a candle each night of their festival. On the last day, family members tend to exchange small gifts—generally gifts that have cultural significance.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.4
Parents help their child light the candles at the beginning of Kwanzaa.
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e Im
age
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ty Im
ages
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2 5 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
only by prejudice and discrimination, but also by a worldview that teaches people to see themselves pri-marily as material, physical beings seeking immedi-ate pleasure. It further asserts that this worldview discourages spiritual and moral development.
The Afrocentric perspective has been used to pro-vide explanations of the origins of specific social problems. For example, violent crimes by youths are thought to be a result of the limited options and choices they have to advance themselves economi-cally. Youths seek a life of street crime as a logical means to cope with, and protest against, a society that practices pervasive employment discrimination. These youths mentally calculate that they can make more money from street crime than from attending college or starting a legitimate business. Turning to a life of crime is also thought more likely to occur in a society with a worldview that deemphasizes spiritual and moral development.
The Afrocentric perspective values a more holis-tic, spiritual, and optimistic view of human beings. It supports the strengths perspective and empower-ment concepts of social work practice, which are described later in this chapter.
LO 4 Suggest Strategies for Advancing Social and Economic JusticeWe will begin this section by reviewing traditional and contemporary models of community change. These models apply to practically all areas of com-munity change in social work; a subset of which are strategies to advance social and economic justice in racial and ethnic relationships.
Traditional Models of Community ChangeVarious approaches have been developed for commu-nity practitioners to bring about community change. Traditionally, they have been categorized into three conceptual frameworks: locality development, social planning, and social action (Rothman, 2001). These models are “ideal types.” Actual approaches to com-munity change have tendencies or emphases that cat-egorize them in one of the three models; yet most approaches also have components characteristic of one or both of the other models. Advocates of the
social planning model, for example, may at times use community change techniques (such as wide discussion and participation by a variety of groups) that are characteristic of the other two models. We will not deal with the mixed forms, but for analyti-cal purposes will instead view the three models as “pure” forms.
Locality Development ModelThe locality development model (also called commu-nity development) asserts that community change can best be brought about through broad participation of a wide spectrum of people at the local commu-nity level. The model seeks to involve a broad cross section of people (including the disadvantaged and the power structure) in identifying and solving their problems. Some themes emphasized in this model are democratic procedures, a consensus approach, voluntary cooperation, development of indigenous leadership, and self-help.
The roles of the community practitioner in this approach include enabler, catalyst, coordinator, and teacher of problem-solving skills and ethical val-ues. The approach assumes that conflicts that arise between various interest groups can be creatively and constructively handled. It encourages people to express their differences but assumes people will put aside their self-interests to further the interests of their community. The basic theme of this ap-proach is “Together we can figure out what to do and then do it.” The approach seeks to use discus-sion and communication between different factions to reach consensus about the problems to focus on and the strategies to resolve these problems. A few examples of locality development efforts in-clude neighborhood work programs conducted by community-based agencies; Volunteers in Service to America; village-level work in some overseas com-munity development programs, including the Peace Corps; and a variety of activities performed by self-help groups. A case example of the locality develop-ment model is the following.
Robert McKearn, a social worker for a juvenile probation department, noticed that an increasing number of school-age children were being referred to his office by the police department, school system, and parents from a small city of 11,000 people in the county served by his agency. The charges included status offenses (such as truancy from school) and de-linquent offenses (such as shoplifting and burglary).
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 57
Mr. McKearn noted that most of these children were from single-parent families.
Mr. McKearn contacted the community men-tal health center, the self-help organization Parents Without Partners, the pupil services department of the public school system, the county social services department, some members of the clergy, and the community mental health center in the area. Nearly everyone he contacted saw an emerging need to bet-ter serve children in single-parent families. The pupil services department mentioned that such children were performing less well academically and tended to display more serious disciplinary problems.
Mr. McKearn arranged a meeting of represen-tatives from the groups and organizations that he contacted.
At the initial meeting a number of concerns were expressed about the problematic behaviors being displayed by children who had single parents. The school system considered these children to be at risk for higher rates of truancy, dropping out of school, delinquent activities, suicide, emotional problems, and unwanted pregnancies. Although numerous problems were identified, no one at this initial meet-ing was able to suggest a viable strategy to better serve single parents and their children. The commu-nity was undergoing an economic recession; there-fore, funds were unavailable for an expensive new program.
Three more meetings were held. At the first two, numerous suggestions for providing services were discussed, but all were viewed as either too expensive or impractical. At the fourth meeting of the group, a single parent representing Parents Without Part-ners mentioned that she was aware that Big Brothers and Big Sisters programs in some communities were of substantial benefit to children in single-parent families. This idea seemed to energize the group. Suggestions began to piggyback. The group, how-ever, determined that funds were unavailable to hire staff to run a Big Brothers and Big Sisters program. However, Rhona Quint, a social worker in the pu-pil services department, noted that she was willing to identify at-risk younger children in single-parent families and that she would be willing to supervise qualified volunteers in a “Big Buddy” program.
Mr. McKearn mentioned that he was currently supervising a student in an undergraduate field placement for an accredited social work program from a college in a nearby community. He noted that
perhaps arrangements could be made for undergrad-uate social work students to be Big Buddies for their required volunteer experience. Rhona Quint said she would approve of the suggestion if she could have the freedom to screen the applicants for Big Buddies. Arrangements were made over the next two months for social work students to be Big Buddies for at-risk younger children from single-parent families. After a two-year experimental period, the school system found the program sufficiently successful that it as-signed Ms. Quint half-time to supervise the program, which included selecting at-risk children, screening volunteer applicants, matching children with Big Buddies, monitoring the progress of each matched pair, and conducting follow-up to ascertain the out-come of each pairing.
In summary, locality development focuses on communities helping themselves. It stresses partici-pation by as many community residents as possible, who work together to solve problems and achieve mutually beneficial goals. Social workers tend to serve as catalysts, facilitators, coordinators, and teachers of problem-solving skills.
Spotlight 5.5 provides some examples of how His-panic communities have focused on their strengths through locality development.
Social Planning ModelThe second model, the social planning approach, emphasizes a technical process of problem solving. The approach assumes that community change in a complex industrial environment requires highly trained and skilled planners who can guide complex change processes. The role of the expert is stressed in this approach. The expert or planner is generally employed by a segment of the power structure, such as area planning agency, city or county planning de-partment, mental health center, United Way board, or Community Welfare Council. There is a tendency for the planner to serve the interests of the power structure that employs him or her. Building commu-nity capacity or facilitating radical social change is generally not an emphasis in this approach.
The planner’s roles in this approach include gath-ering facts, analyzing data, and serving as program designer, implementer, and facilitator. Community participation may vary from little to substantial, depending on the community’s attitudes toward the problems being addressed. For example, an effort to design and obtain funding for a community center
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2 58 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Latino and hispanic communities Promote strengths and EmpowermentHistorically, Hispanic people have frequently been involved in community development and social action (Weil & Gamble, 1995). For example, consider La Raza Unida, a “political movement and party, comprising mostly Mexican American people and others of Spanish-speaking heritage, that advocates for policies and candidates favorable to the needs of Hispanic people” (Barker, 2003, p. 241; Green, 1999). Various Hispanic organizations have worked to improve political, economic, and social conditions in numerous development and action projects (Weil & Gamble, 1995).
Consider, for instance, the “Comunidad de Bienestar” (community of wellness) in the middle of the Chicago Puerto Rican community (Kelley, 2007). This is a community-sponsored initiative intended to promote communication among residents, celebrate Puerto Rican and other Hispanic cultures, enhance ethnic pride, improve the community environment, and address health and other “basic needs (food, water, shelter, income, safety, work)” for all community residents (p. 3). Community leaders emphasize political advocacy and actively seek political representation to address these community goals. A striking example of community progress involves the development of a length of Western Division Street into an area called Paseo Boricua. This has become “a Puerto Rican culinary, cultural and entertainment district. This nearly mile-long area is anchored by two 45-ton steel Puerto Rican flags . . . and has a Puerto Rican Walk of Fame and beautiful murals depicting history and culture. It becomes a social space for people to walk together, shop, eat—socialize—while also getting services from places such as Vida Sida—a culturally tailored HIV/AIDS prevention and control program” (p. 3). The Comunidad de Bienestar also has developed an attractive park to serve as a setting for family activities and an annual cultural festival, Fiesta Boricua.
Garcia (2011) examines another means by which Hispanic communities can empower their residents. This concerns a program aimed at enhancing Latino families’ relationship with community schools, thereby helping children to do well in school:
The family-centeredness that characterizes Latino culture is interwoven with a concern for and emphasis on the collective. This emphasis can be used by workers to provide educational, informational, and problem-focused services by using group formats. In particular, the use of parent groups to inform parents about school policy or to address special topics, if driven by a culturally sensitive format, can be especially effective. Because so many Latino families immigrate to this country to ensure good educational resources for their children, developing
services in collaboration with schools to strengthen the relationship between parents and the school systems is a critical need area. (p. 327)
Delgado, Jones, and Rohani (2005) provide another example of how a Hispanic community developed a program to enhance children’s performance in school:
The Hispanic Committee of Virginia, through its school alliance program titled “Alianza Escolar,” seeks to provide educational services that promote learning and encourage youth to stay in school while also assisting parents to participate in their children’s education and expand their own potential. The program matches Latino children who attend targeted elementary and middle schools with adult volunteers for tutoring and other mentoring activities. The program works with students whose environment puts them at risk of dropping out of school. Teachers and counselors identify Latino students in the fourth through eighth grades for the program. After being selected, students are matched with a volunteer mentor. Throughout the school year, the students meet with their mentors one evening a week for one-hour sessions. The mentors help the students with their schoolwork, concentrate on verbal and math skills, and provide activities that promote the students’ achievement. (p. 106)
A Brief Note About TermsThe preceding paragraphs have used the terms Puerto Rican, Latino, and Hispanic. It is important to clarify terms as much as possible when referring to these populations. Weaver (2005) explains:
The terms Spanish, Hispanic, Latino, and Chicano have all been used as labels to represent people in the United States who trace their history and culture back to areas colonized by Spain. Some terms are more inclusive than others. These terms have somewhat different connotations, and people often have strong feelings about which terms they prefer. Issues of identity are situated within a historical and political context and are closely tied to the choice of ethnic labels such as Latino, Hispanic, Chicano, and Rican . . . The right to choose a name is empowering.
The term Hispanic was introduced in the 1970s and used by the U.S. Census Bureau for those with cultural origins in Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Central America, and other Latin American countries. This term
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.5
(continued)
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 59
sometimes includes Spaniards and Brazilians [Brazil’s primary language is Portuguese]. Although Hispanic is the term officially used and created by the U.S. Census Bureau, many people do not accept this label to represent themselves . . .
Some people prefer the label Latino as more representative of the amalgam of people linked by the Spanish colonial history . . . However, given the extensive diversity among the people grouped under this label, when speaking of a specific group, it is preferable to use terms based on national origin (e.g., Ecuadoran, Dominican) rather than more encompassing terms such as Hispanic or Latino . . . When referring exclusively to women, the term Latina is used. (pp. 140–141)
Note that the terms Chicano and Chicana have often been used to refer to people of Mexican descent (Barker, 2003).
An example of the complexity of this issue comes to mind: A social worker who identified herself as Hispanic was actively involved in advocacy on behalf of Hispanic people in general and poor women in particular. She was
interested in joining an organization that advocated for the rights of Hispanics, the Chicano Initiative (CI). Originally from Argentina, she expressed serious concern regarding her membership in a Chicano/Chicana organization because she was not of Mexican descent. Members of the organization, however, valued her interest, input, and efforts. They indicated that their intent was to involve a broad-based membership of people who originated from countries with a Spanish heritage. The members welcomed all people, regardless of their origins, who were interested in CI’s cause. The social worker joined the organization and became quite a dynamo in getting things done.
The important thing for social workers is to be sensitive to the ethnic and cultural background of their clients. Practitioners should respect clients’ preferred group identification.
In this book when it is not practical to refer to specific countries of origin, we will arbitrarily use the terms Latino/Latina to refer to the wide range of ethnic groups within this population (Garcia, 2011; Lum, 2005; Weaver, 2005).
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.5 (continued)
for older adults may or may not result in substan-tial involvement by interested community groups, depending on the politics surrounding such a center. Much of the focus of the social planning approach is on identifying needs and on arranging and deliv-ering goods and services to people who need them. The change focus of this approach is “Let’s get the facts and take the next rational steps.” A case exam-ple of the social planning model follows.
The mayor and city council of a medium-sized midwestern city became increasingly concerned about the deterioration of community living in the northeast area of the city. The mayor and city coun-cil passed a resolution directing the City Planning Department to develop an approach to combat a variety of social ills (including rising rates of crime, racial conflict, and a lack of recreational resources for children and adults) in this section of the city. The planning department assigned Jose Cruz (an MSW social worker with 11 years of social planning experience) to develop a proposal to improve the community.
Mr. Cruz first contacted and introduced him-self to community leaders in this neighborhood: city aldermen, county board supervisors, members of the clergy, administrators of community service
agencies, and business leaders. He then arranged and led five focus groups in this neighborhood with these community leaders. (Focus groups provide one method for gathering data. A focus group is a gath-ering of people who meet to discuss a specific topic or issue, evaluate it in depth, share information, and when appropriate, propose solutions or plans of ac-tion. They typically include 6 to 12 members who meet to discuss and brainstorm about an issue and are usually led by a moderator who keeps the group on task.) Mr. Cruz’s first focal topic was “What do you see as the major problems in this community?” Common responses were a deteriorating community, high rates of crime, lack of community resources, racial conflict, and lack of a sense of community among the residents. Mr. Cruz also led several focus groups of citizens in the community who were in-vited to the meetings by members of the clergy in the neighborhood. Responses of the citizens were simi-lar to those identified by community leaders.
O n c e t h e m a j o r c o n c e r n s we re i d e n t i f i e d , Mr. Cruz invited those who attended the first focus groups to attend one of a second set of focus groups. At these he asked, “Given the fact that this neigh-borhood is experiencing high rates of crime, racial conflict, single-parent families, lack of recreational
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2 6 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
resources for children and adults, and a lack of com-munity pride, what can we do to combat these prob-lems?” A number of focus group members suggested building a neighborhood center in a neighborhood park to provide a variety of cultural, recreational, social, and educational programs.
Mr. Cruz then urged interested community leaders and citizens to form a Neighborhood Cen-ter Planning Committee. Thirty-three community residents agreed to be on this committee. Mr. Cruz worked with the committee to prepare an architec-tural design for the Center. This committee, with Mr. Cruz’s assistance, then prepared a budget to build and operate the Center, with funding from a variety of sources—federal funding, city funding, neighborhood fundraising, and a contribution from the United Way. Mr. Cruz and the Neighborhood Center Planning Committee then presented the pro-posal to the City Planning Department, which rap-idly approved it. The proposal was then presented to the mayor and the city council, who deliberated about it for 14 months but eventually approved it. Groundbreaking for the Center will soon begin.
In summary, social planning involves the use of experts to assist communities in solving problems. Such experts gather facts and apply skills to pro-pose and implement solutions that benefit commu-nity residents. Social work roles in social planning, include expert planner, fact gatherer, program devel-oper, and implementer.
Social Action ModelThe third model, the social action approach, assumes there is a disadvantaged (often oppressed) segment of the population that needs to be organized, per-haps in alliance with others, in order to pressure the power structure for increased resources or for treat-ment more in accordance with democracy or social justice. Social action approaches at times seek basic changes in major institutions or seek changes in ba-sic policies of formal organizations. Such approaches often seek redistribution of power and resources. Whereas locality developers envision a unified com-munity, social action advocates see the power struc-ture as the opposition—the target of action.
Perhaps the best-known social activist was Saul Alinsky (1972), who advised, “Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, and polarize it” (p. 130).
The roles of the community practitioner in this approach include advocate, agitator, activist, par-tisan, broker, and negotiator. Tactics used in social action projects include protests, boycotts, confronta-tion, and negotiation. The change strategy is “Let’s organize to overpower our oppressor” (Alinsky, 1969, p. 72). The client population is viewed as being “victims” of the oppressive power structure. Exam-ples of the social action approach include boycotts during the civil rights movement in the 1960s, strikes by unions, protests by antiabortion groups, and pro-tests by African American and Native American groups.
The Black Lives Matter movement started as a response to the Trayvon Martin case in 2013 and has since become a global phenomenon.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 61
The social action model is not widely used by social workers at present. Many workers find that being involved in social action activities may lead their employing agencies to penalize them with un-pleasant work assignments, low merit increases, and denial of promotions. Many agencies will accept mi-nor and moderate changes in their service delivery systems but are threatened by the prospect of the radical changes often advocated by the social action approach.
Saul Alinsky (1972) provides the following exam-ple of a creative social action effort:
I wa s l e c t u r i n g a t a c o l l e ge r u n by a ve ry conservative, almost fundamentalist Protestant denomination. Afterward some of the students came to my motel to talk to me. Their problem was that they couldn’t have any fun on campus. They weren’t permitted to dance or smoke or have a can of beer. I had been talking about the strategy of effecting change in a society and they wanted to know what tactics they could use to change their situation. I reminded them that a tactic is doing what you can with what you’ve got. “Now, what have you got?” I asked. “What do they permit you to do?” “Practically nothing,” they said, “except—you know—we can chew gum.” I said, “Fine. Gum becomes the weapon. You get 200 or 300 students to get two packs of gum each, which is quite a wad. Then you have them drop it on the campus walks. This will cause absolute chaos. Why, with 500 wads of gum I could paralyze Chicago, stop all the traffic in the Loop.” They looked at me as though I was some kind of nut. But about two weeks later I got an ecstatic letter saying, “It worked! It worked! Now we can do just about anything so long as we don’t chew gum.” (pp. 145–146)
In summary, social action involves pressuring the power structure to provide resources or improve the treatment of oppressed populations who are victims. In the pursuit of social justice, the power structure is viewed as the adversary, so conflict, confrontation, and direct action are often used. Social workers pur-suing social action often serve as advocates, activi-ties, brokers, and negotiators, all social work roles described later in the chapter.
Highlight 5.1 summarizes the three traditional models of community change just discussed.
Contemporary Conceptual Frameworks of Community ChangeRothman (2007) proposes a newer outlook con-cerning the traditional models of locality develop-ment, social planning, and social action that calls for “multi modes of intervention” (p. 11). Two new ideas predominate.
One major initiative is that the traditional three community organization methods should be up-dated to reflect a modification in focus. First, “social advocacy” should replace social action (Rothman, 2007, p. 12). “Social advocacy deems the applica-tion of pressure as the best course of action to take against people or institutions that may have [brought about] . . . the problem or that stand in the way of its solution—which frequently involves promoting equity or social justice. When interests clash in this way, conflict is a given” (p. 12). Advocacy becomes the focus of attention.
“Planning and policy practice” then replace the traditional social planning approach (Rothman, 2007, p. 12). Planning continues to involve “propos-ing and enacting particular solutions” (p. 12). Policy practice entails “efforts to change policies in legis-lative, agency, and community settings, whether by establishing new policies, improving existing ones, or defeating the policy initiatives of other people” (Jansson, 2011, p. 15). Changing policy often be-comes an objective.
“Community capacity development” is substi-tuted for community development (Rothman, 2007, p. 12). “Community capacity development assumes that change is best accomplished when the people af-fected by problems are empowered with the knowl-edge and skills needed to understand their problems, and then work cooperatively together to overcome them. Thus there is a premium on consensus as a tac-tic and on social solidarity [unity including diverse community groups that is based on mutual interests, support, and goals] as [a means] . . . and outcome” (p. 12). Here community capacity (the potential use of the community’s inherent strengths, resources, cit-izen participation, and leadership) is stressed.
The second primary initiative posed for contem-porary macro practice involves the flexibility of mix-ing various aspects of these three approaches to get things done. Rothman (2007) reflects that macro practice is often a complex process that requires em-phasizing various aspects of these three approaches
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2 62 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
depending on the situation. For example, planning and policy practice may require varying degrees of social advocacy. Advocacy, of course, involves step-ping forward on the behalf of the client system in or-der to promote fair and equitable treatment or gain needed resources. Policy advocacy is “policy practice that aims to help powerless groups, such as women, children, poor people, persons of color, gay men and lesbians, and people with disabilities to improve their resources and opportunities” (Jansson, 2012, p. 522).
Rothman (2007) provides an example of a per-son undertaking policy advocacy to improve policies that affect groups at risk of harm:
W i l b u r C o h e n , a fo r m e r s e c re t a ry o f t h e Department of Health, Education, and Welfare,
vividly exemplifies a policy advocate who spent a lifetime in public service. During the Depression-era administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal he helped draft the 1936 act that established the Social Security System . . . In 1956 he was instrumental in instituting disability insurance. Continuing as a prime designer of America’s “welfare state,” under the Johnson administration in 1965 he set up the Medicare system . . . Johnson described him as the “planner, architect, builder, and repairman” for most of the social legislation of “The Great Society” [the period during Johnson’s presidency that referred to major social welfare initiatives aimed at pursuing a War on Poverty (Barker, 2003)]. (p. 20)
HIGHLIGHT 5.1
characteristics of three models of community change
Characteristic Locality Development Social Planning Social Action
1. Goals self-help; improve community living; emphasis on process goals.
Use problem-solving approach to resolve community problems; emphasis on task goals.
shift power relationships and resources to an oppressed group, create basic institutional change; emphasize task and process goals.
2. assumptions concerning community
Everyone wants community living to improve and is willing to contribute to that improvement.
social problems in the commu-nity can be resolved through the efforts of planning experts.
the community has a power structure and one or more oppressed groups, so social injustice is a major problem.
3. Basic change strategy Broad cross section of people involved in identifying and solving problems.
Experts using fact-gathering and problem-solving approach.
members of oppressed groups organize to take action against the power structure—i.e., the enemy.
4. characteristic change tactics and techniques
consensus: communication among community groups and interests; group discussion.
consensus or conflict. conflict or contest: confrontation, direct action, negotiation.
5. Practitioner roles catalyst; facilitator; coordi-nator; teacher of problem-solving skills.
Expert planner; fact gatherer; analyst; program developer; and implementer.
activist; advocate; agitator-broker; negotiator; partisan.
6. Views of power structure members of power structure are collaborators in a common venture.
Power structure is employers and sponsors.
Power structure is external target of action; oppressors to be coerced or overturned.
7. Views of client population citizens. consumers. Victims.
8. Views of client role Participant in a problem-solving process.
consumer or recipient. Employer or constituent.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 6 3
Community Strategies to Promote Social and Economic JusticeWidely ranging strategies have been developed to reduce racial and ethnic discrimination and oppres-sion. These strategies include mass media appeals, strategies to increase interaction among racial and ethnic groups, civil rights laws, activism, affirmative action programs, confrontation of racist and ethnic remarks and actions, minority-owned businesses, confrontation of the problems in inner cities, and asset-based community development. Because rac-ism is a more serious problem in our society than ethnocentrism, most of the strategies against dis-crimination primarily focus on curtailing racial dis-crimination and oppression.
Mass Media Appeals: Striving to Change Institutional ValuesThe mass media are able to reach large numbers of people simultaneously. By expanding public aware-ness of the existence of discrimination and its con-sequences, the media may strengthen control over racial and ethnic extremists. But newspapers, radio, and television have limitations in changing preju-diced attitudes and behaviors; they are primarily providers of information and seldom have a lasting effect in changing deep-seated prejudices through propaganda. Highly prejudiced persons are often unaware of their own prejudices. Even if they are aware of their prejudices, they generally ignore mass media appeals as irrelevant to them or dismiss the appeals as propaganda.
However, the media probably have had a sig-nificant impact in reducing discrimination through showing nonwhites and whites harmoniously work-ing together in commercials, on news teams, and on TV shows. These settings provide at least one avenue for changing institutional values rooted in racism and discrimination.
Greater Interaction Between Minority Groups and the Majority GroupIncreased contact between minority groups and the majority group is not in itself sufficient to alleviate prejudice. In fact, increased contact may, in some instances, highlight the differences between groups and increase suspicions and fear. Prejudice is likely to be increased when contacts are tension-laden or
involuntary (Schaefer, 2015). Prejudice is likely to subside when individuals are placed in situations in which they share characteristics in nonracial and nonethnic matters—for example, as coworkers, fel-low soldiers, or classmates. Equal-status contacts, rather than inferior-superior status contacts, are also more apt to reduce prejudices (Schaefer, 2015).
Civil Rights Laws: Changing the Legal Macro SystemIn the past 60 years, equal rights have been legislated in areas of employment, voting, housing, public ac-commodation, and education. A key question is, how effective are laws in changing prejudice?
Proponents of civil rights legislation make certain assumptions. The first is that new laws will reduce discriminatory behavior patterns. The laws define what was once normal behavior (discrimination) as now being deviant behavior. Through time, it is ex-pected that attitudes will change and become more consistent with the forced nondiscriminatory behav-ior patterns.
A second assumption is that the laws will be used. Civil rights laws were enacted after the Civil War but were seldom enforced and gradually were eroded. It is also unfortunately true that some officials will find ways of evading the intent of the law by eliminating only the extreme, overt symbols of discrimination, without changing other practices. Thus, the enact-ment of a law is only the first step in the process of changing prejudiced attitudes and practices. How-ever, as Martin Luther King Jr. noted, “The law may not make a man love me, but it can restrain him from lynching me, and I think that’s pretty important.”
ActivismThe strategy of activism attempts to change the structure of race relations through direct confron-tations of discrimination and segregation policies. Activism has three types of politics: the politics of creative disorder, the politics of disorder, and the politics of escape.
The politics of creative disorder operates on the edge of the dominant social system and includes school boycotts, rent strikes, job blockades, sit-ins (e.g., at businesses that are alleged to discriminate), public marches, and product boycotts. This type of activism is based on the concept of nonviolent
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2 6 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
resistance. A dramatic illustration of nonviolent re-sistance began on December 1, 1955, in Montgom-ery, Alabama, when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white person. Spotlight 5.6 de-scribes Rosa Parks’s act of courage.
The politics of disorder reflects alienation from the dominant culture and disillusionment with the political system. Those being discriminated against resort to mob uprisings, riots, and other forms of violence.
In 1969, the National Commission on Causes and Prevention of Violence reported that 200 riots had occurred in the previous five years when inner cities erupted (Sullivan, Thompson, Wright, Gross, & Spady, 1980). In 1992, as discussed previously, there was a devastating riot in the inner city of Los Angeles following the not-guilty verdict by a jury to charges that four white police officers had used ex-cessive force in arresting Rodney King, an African American. The focus of most of these riots has been minority group aggression against white-owned property. In 2001, rioting occurred in Cincinnati af-ter an African American had been shot and killed by a white police officer. In 2014, rioting occurred in Ferguson, Missouri, after an African American teenager was shot and killed by a white police officer.
The politics of escape engages in rhetoric about minority victimization. But because the focus is not on solutions, the rhetoric has not been productive, except perhaps in providing an emotional release.
The principal value of social protest seems to be the stimulation of public awareness of certain prob-lems. The civil rights protests in the 1960s made practically all Americans aware of the discrimina-tion to which nonwhite groups were being subjected. With this awareness, at least some of the discrimi-nation has ceased, and race relations have improved. Continued protest beyond a certain (although indeterminate) point, however, appears to have little additional value (Schaefer, 2015).
Affirmative Action: A Macro-System ResponseAffirmative action programs require that employers demonstrate that they are actively employing mi-nority applicants. Employers can no longer defend themselves by claiming that a decision not to hire a minority group member was based on some criterion other than ethnic group membership. If the percent-age of minority group members in their employ is
significantly lower than the percentage in the work-force, employers must accept a goal for minority em-ployment and set up timetables stating when these goals are likely to be met.
Affirmative action programs provide for pref-erential hiring and admission requirements (e.g., admission to medical schools) for minority appli-cants. Affirmative action programs cover all minor-ity groups, including women. These programs also require that employers make active efforts to locate and recruit qualified minority applicants and, in cer-tain circumstances, have hard quotas under which specific numbers of minority members must be ac-cepted to fill vacant positions. For example, a uni-versity with a high proportion of white male faculty may be required to fill half of its faculty vacancies with women and members of other minority groups. Affirmative action programs require that employers must demonstrate according to a checklist of positive measures that they are not guilty of discrimination.
A major dilemma with affirmative action pro-grams is that preferential hiring and quota programs involve reverse discrimination, in which qualified ma-jority group members are sometimes arbitrarily ex-cluded. Numerous lawsuits have been filed over the years in which complainants have alleged they have been victimized by reverse discrimination. The best-known case to date has been that of Alan Bakke, who was initially denied admission to the medical school at the University of California at Davis in 1973. He alleged reverse discrimination because he had higher grades and higher scores on the Medi-cal College Admissions Tests than several minority applicants who were admitted under the universi-ty’s minorities quota policy. In 1978, his claim was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in a precedent-setting decision (Sindler, 1978). The court ruled that strict racial quotas were unconstitutional, but did not rule out using race as one among many criteria in making admissions decisions.
Supporters of affirmative action programs note that the majority group expressed little concern about discrimination when its members were the beneficiaries instead of the victims of discrimination. They also assert there is no other way to make up rapidly for past discrimination against minorities— many of whom may presently score slightly lower on qualification tests because they have not had the op-portunities and the quality of training that the ma-jority group members have had.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 65
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 5.6
rosa Parks’s act of courage sparked the civil rights movement
Rosa Parks (1913–2005) has been called “the first lady of civil rights” and “the mother of the freedom movement.” Parks was a seamstress in a local department store in Montgomery, Alabama. She was also the secretary of the Montgomery
chapter of the NAACP. She had also received activist training for workers’ rights and racial equality. On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks was in a hurry. She had a lot of things to do. When the bus came to the boarding area where she was standing in Montgomery, Alabama, she got on without paying attention to the driver. She rode the bus often and was aware of Montgomery’s segregated seating laws, which required blacks to sit at the back of the bus.
In those days in the South, black people were expected to board at the front of the bus, pay their fare, then get off and walk outside the bus to reboard at the back. But Rosa Parks noted that the back was already crowded, standing room only, with black passengers even standing on the back steps of the bus. It was apparent to Rosa that it would be all but impossible to reboard at the back. Besides, bus drivers sometimes drove off and left black passengers behind, even after accepting their fares. Rosa Parks spontaneously decided to take her chances. She paid her fare in the front of the bus, then walked down the aisle and took a seat toward the back of the bus that was still in the area reserved for whites. At the second stop after she boarded, a white man got on and had to stand.
The bus driver saw the white man standing, and ordered Rosa Parks to move to the back. She refused, thinking, “I want to be treated like a human being.” Two police officers were called, and they arrested Rosa. She was taken to city hall, booked, fingerprinted, jailed, and fined. Her arrest and subsequent appeal all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court were the catalyst for a year-long boycott of the city buses by blacks, who composed 70 percent of the bus riders. The boycott inspired Martin Luther King Jr. to become involved. The boycott ended when the Supreme Court declared Montgomery’s segregated seating laws unconstitutional. Rosa Parks’s defiance of the segregated seating law sparked the civil rights movement. This movement has not only promoted social and economic justice for African Americans, but has also served to inspire other groups to organize to advocate for their civil rights. These groups include other racial and ethnic groups, women, older persons, persons with disabilities, and gays and lesbians.
Rosa Parks became a national hero for her actions, courage, and persistence.
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With affirmative action programs, some minor-ity group members are given preferential treatment, which results in some whites being discriminated against. But minority group members still face more employment discrimination than whites do.
Supporters of affirmative action contend that as long as businesses rely on personal recommen-dations, informal social networks, and family ties,
white men will have a distinct advantage (in filling job/position vacancies) built on generations of being in positions of power.
Affirmative action programs raise delicate and complex questions about achieving equality through giving preferences in hiring and admissions to mi-norities. Yet no other means has been found to end subtle discrimination in hiring and admissions.
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2 6 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Admission to educational programs and well-pay-ing jobs is a crucial element in working toward inte-gration. The history of immigrant groups who have “made it” (such as the Irish, Japanese, and Italians) suggests equality will be achieved only when minor-ity group members gain middle- and upper-class sta-tus. Once such status is achieved, the minority group members become an economic and political force to be reckoned with. The dominant groups are pres-sured into modifying their norms, values, and stereo-types. For this reason, a number of authorities have noted that the elimination of economic discrimi-nation is a prerequisite for achieving equality and harmonious race relations (Kornblum et al., 2012). Achieving educational equality between races is also crucial because lower educational attainments lead to less prestigious jobs, lower incomes, lower living standards, and the perpetuation of racial inequali-ties from one generation to the next.
Critics of affirmative action assert that it is a highly politicized and painful remedy that has stigmatized many of those it was meant to help. Affirmative action is now perceived by many in our society as a system of preferences for the unqualified. Critics further assert that while affirmative action may have been necessary 60 years ago to make sure that minority candidates received fair treatment to counter the social barriers to hiring and admission that stemmed from centuries of unequal treatment, such programs are no longer needed. They assert that it is wrong to discriminate against white males for the sole purpose of making up for an injustice that somebody’s great-grandfather may have done to somebody else’s great-grandfather. They assert that it is wrong for the daughter of a wealthy African American couple, for example, to be given preference in employment over the son of a homeless alcoholic who happens to be white.
In 1996, voters in California passed Proposition 209, which explicitly rejects the idea that women and other minority group members could get special consideration when applying for jobs, government contracts, or university admission. This affirmative action ban became law in California in August 1997. In addition, numerous lawsuits have been filed ob-jecting to reverse discrimination. If the courts rule in favor of those filing the lawsuits, the power of af-firmative action programs will be sharply reduced. In November 1997, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a challenge to the California law that ended racial
and gender preferences in that state. This Supreme Court action clears the way for other states and cities to ban affirmative action. Michigan is another state that has banned affirmative action programs.
Supporters of affirmative action believe that if we abandon affirmative action, we return to the “old-boy” network. They assert that affirmative action has helped many women and people of color to at-tain a good education and higher-paying positions, and thereby to remove themselves from the ranks of the poor. They assert that in a society in which racist and sexist attitudes remain, it is necessary to have af-firmative action in order to give women and people of color a fair opportunity at attaining a quality ed-ucation and well-paying jobs.
A number of authorities are now proposing race-blind policies that will not create reverse discrimi-nation but will address past patterns of racism and the inequalities engendered by racism. Such policies would deal with the needs of people on a class basis rather than in terms of race of ethnic status. An ex-ample of a race-blind social policy in the interests of increasing equality of opportunity is the practice re-cently established by Harvard University and other private universities of awarding full scholarships to accepted students whose families earn less than $50,000 per year (Kornblum & Julian, p. 255).
Ethical Question 5.3
EP 1
Do you believe affirmative action programs should be (1) expanded to give greater preferential treatment to minorities, (2) reduced to give less preferential treatment to minorities, or (3) eliminated?
Confronting Racist Remarks and ActionsRacist jokes and sarcastic remarks help shape and perpetuate stereotypes and prejudices. Whites and nonwhites need to tactfully but assertively indicate they do not view such remarks as humorous or ap-propriate. It is also important that people tactfully and assertively point out the inappropriateness of racist actions by others. Such confrontations
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 67
make explicit that subtle racist remarks and ac-tions are discriminatory and harmful, which has a consciousness-raising effect. It is expected that such confrontations gradually will reduce racial prejudices and actions.
Ethical Question 5.4
EP 1
Are you aware that if you listen to (and laugh at) racist jokes, you are involved in perpetuating stereotypes and prejudices?
Noted nineteenth-century author, lecturer, and abolitionist Frederick Douglass stated,
Power concedes nothing without a demand—it never did, and it never will. Find out just what people will submit to, and you’ve found out the exact amount of injustice and wrong which will be imposed upon them. This will continue until they resist, either with words, blows, or both. The limits of tyrants are prescribed by the endurance of those whom they oppress. (quoted in Cummings, 1977, p. 201)
Minority-Owned BusinessesMany people aspire to run their own business. Run-ning a business is particularly attractive to many members of minority groups. It means an opportu-nity to increase one’s income and wealth. It is also a way to avoid some of the racial and ethnic discrimi-nation that occurs in the work world, such as the “glass ceilings” that block the promotion of quali-fied minority workers in corporations.
Since the 1970s, federal, state, and local govern-ments have attempted to assist minority-owned busi-nesses in a variety of ways. Programs have provided low-interest loans to minority-owned businesses. There are set-aside programs that stipulate that government contracts must be awarded to a minimum proportion, usually 10 to 30 percent, of minority-owned busi-nesses. Some large urban areas have created enterprise zones, encouraging employment and investment in blighted neighborhoods through tax breaks. Minority- owned businesses have slowly been increasing in num-ber. Yet only a small fraction of the total number of people classified as being a member of a minor-ity group has benefited from government support of minority-owned businesses (Schaefer, 2015).
An ethical dilemma is described in “Are Native American Casinos a Benefit or a Detriment?”
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2 6 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
ETHICAL DILEMMA
are native american casinos a Benefit or a detriment?In 1988, Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, which recognized the right of Native American tribes in the United States to establish gambling and gaming facilities on their reservations as long as the states in which they are located have some form of legalized gambling. A majority of states have now made arrangements with Native American tribes to have casinos. Gambling operations vary, but may include offtrack betting, casino tables such as blackjack and roulette, sports betting, video games of chance, telephone betting, slot machines, and high-stakes bingo. The vast majority of gamblers are non–Native Americans. The actual casinos are a form of tribal government enterprises as opposed to private business operations.
The economic impact on some reservations has been enormous. Many casinos take in millions of dollars in profits annually. Schaefer (2015) notes that about one-third of the recognized Native American tribes have casinos. Tribes that have opened casinos have greatly reduced their rate of unemployment, as the casinos tend to hire a number of members of the tribe. (They also employ non–Native Americans.) The revenues generated have helped spur economic development on land owned by the tribes. Welfare rates on reservations with casinos have dropped. Tribes are using their profits for the betterment of the reservation and its people. They are building schools and colleges and community centers, setting up education trust funds and scholarships, investing in alcohol and drug treatment programs, financing new business enterprises (entrepreneurships), and putting in water and sewer systems on the reservations. The national prominence of tribal casinos has also given Native American leaders potential political clout with federal, state, and local governments.
There are also some drawbacks. One negative effect is gambling addiction. Many communities where casinos have been built have seen dramatic increases in the number of people addicted to gambling. Such an addiction may lead to higher rates of domestic violence and alcoholism. Another negative aspect of gambling is that those who can least afford to gamble usually are the most affected. The poor spend a greater percentage of their income on gambling than the wealthy, giving gambling the same effect on income as regressive taxes, with the poor being hit the hardest.
Opposition to gambling on reservations has arisen from both Native Americans and non–Native Americans. Some Native Americans fear losing their traditional values to corruption and organized crime. Others fear that as more and more casinos are built, the gambling market will become saturated with casinos competing with one another “for the same dollar.” As a result, the tribes may be left with empty casinos and high unemployment rates. Some tribal members feel that casinos trivialize and cheapen their heritage. The issue of who shares in gambling profits has led in some tribal communities to healed conflicts over who is a member of the tribe.
Non–Native American critics sharply question the special economic status given to Native Americans in operating casinos and demand an even playing field. It should be noted that less than half of the Native American tribes have casinos. Indeed, the rural and unpopulated locations of many tribes prevent them from having profitable casinos; therefore many Naive Americans do not profit from gaming.
Asset-Based Community Development
Many American (and foreign) cities have pockets of deeply troubled com-munities. These pockets have high rates of crime, violence, unemployment, wel-fare dependency, gangs, drug involve-ment, homelessness, and vacant and abandoned land and buildings.
There are two paths for seeking to find solutions for deteriorated communities: the
deficiency-oriented model and the asset-based approach. Both of these approaches will be briefly described.
The deficiency model focuses attention on what is “wrong” with a community. A key instrument used
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
in the deficiency model is a “needs” survey, which focuses on the deficits in a community. The defi-ciency model often leads to the creation of “client neighborhoods.” The creation of a client neighbor-hood is often accelerated by the mass media with its focus on emphasizing the spectacularly problematic components of a client neighborhood. It is apt to lead residents in these neighborhoods to view them-selves as deficient victims who are incapable of tak-ing charge of their lives and of their community’s future. Targeting resources based on a “needs map” directs funding to service providers rather than di-rectly to the residents. The service providers, with the deficiency approach, then relate to the residents as “clients.” This approach furthers the perception that only outside experts can provide “real help.” Such an
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 69
approach hinders the development of the leadership capacities of the residents.
Furthermore, service providers are under funding pressure to provide annual evidence that problems continue to intensify—in order for funding to be re-newed. All of these factors tend to lead to the deep-ening of the cycle of dependence.
The asset-based model focuses on the develop-ment of policies and activities based on the assets, skills, and capacities of lower-income people and their neighborhoods (Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). The asset-based approach believes that sig-nificant community development only occurs when local community people are committed to invest-ing themselves and their resources in improving the community. This approach believes sustainable de-velopment of a community must start from within the community—rather than waiting for significant help to arrive from outside the community. Instead of viewing the residents of a deteriorated neighbor-hood as being “clients,” this model views residents as being “citizens”—who have untapped resources, assets, capabilities, and potential. The focus is on the community’s assets, capacities, and abilities. In ad-dition, every community has a number of citizen’s associations—where the citizens assemble to share common interests and activities, and to solve prob-lems. (Every community has associations with reli-gious, athletic, cultural, and recreational purposes.) These associations are key instruments in having the potential for community development.
Additional assets in a community include the fol-lowing: private businesses; public institutions such as police and fire stations, parks, schools, and libraries; social service agencies; hospitals; and medical clinics.
The key to asset-based community development is mobilizing the assets of individuals, associations, businesses, and public institutions to build a commu-nity from inside out.
How can this mobilization be accomplished? Mathie and Cunningham (2008) edited a text that summarizes a number of successful efforts in many countries—in Egypt, Brazil, the United States, Ecuador, Vietnam, Canada, Morocco, India, South Africa, Kenya, and the Philippines. The mobilization of one of these efforts, Building the Mercado Central in Minneapolis, will be summarized (Sheehan, 2008).
The Mercado Central is located on Minneapolis’s Lake Street. Historically this area was a commerce center. However, in the 1960s, the area experienced
serious deterioration. Established businesses began to close their doors. Homeowners fled this area. City services no longer were sufficient to upgrade the ag-ing infrastructure. By 1970, this area was a “seedy” district with pawn shops, liquor stores, bars, and adult sex businesses.
Today, the Mercado Central is a thriving retail business cooperative that was developed by the Latino immigrant community in Minneapolis. More than 40 established businesses are located in this area. It is the hub of this community. It is a place of pride and culture for Latinos, and for non-Latinos.
The Mercado Central is a central market place where people gather to socialize, shop, celebrate, share news, and share concerns. Traditional mercados in Latin American cities are in the center of a city and are designed to be an informal place for families to shop, socialize, and dine.
What led to the transformation of this “seedy area” in the 1970s to a thriving central market area that Latinos and non-Latinos now cherish?
According to Sheehan (2008), it began in 1990 when five Salvadoran immigrants asked Juan Linares, a social worker for Catholic Charities, to make St. Stephen’s (the local Catholic church) avail-able to community access during the week. The im-migrants wanted a place to pray, and gather, during the week. (The church had been locked during the week.) Juan Linares had moved to the United States from Mexico City. Juan Linares’s request that this church be opened during the week was granted. The Salvadoran immigrants then requested some church masses be held in Spanish. With the assistance of Isaiah (a multi-denominational, congregation-based community organizing coalition in Minneapolis) the first Spanish mass was conducted at St. Stephen’s in 1991. The deacon, Carl Valdez, in this area (at the re-quest of Juan Linares) then arranged for 12 bilingual priests to commit to a weekly rotation at St. Stephen’s.
(From the 1970s to the 1990s, this area of the city increasingly saw Latino immigrants settle in this neighborhood. These Latino immigrants were from Mexico, Central and South America, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.)
The deacon, Carl Valdez, then visited over 200 families in the neighborhood to discuss their desire to build a spiritual community in this area. He also asked them whether they were willing to help build such a spiritual community. In 1995, a church was established in St. Stephen’s Parish called
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2 70 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Sagrado Corazon, which resulted in over 750 La-tino families regularly attending this new Spanish-focused church. This church eventually became the center from which Latino residents would mobilize to build their local economy and to address commu-nity concerns.
From these church families, a “sponsoring team” of community members was formed to develop an action plan that addressed the community’s concerns about what the community believed were unfair im-migration practices of the Immigration and Natu-ralization Service (INS). This team wanted the INS to transform its interactions with Latino residents in ways that respected language barriers and other concerns.
Juan Linares and Salvador Miranda (one of Isaiah’s community organizers) then began working with congregation members to develop a “Commu-nity Talent Inventory” (CTI) that was focused on de-veloping entrepreneurial skills within the community and building relationships among community mem-bers. This CTI identified a desire for targeted entre-preneurial training.
Since an entrepreneurial training program in Spanish was already offered in the neighboring city of St. Paul, the provider of this training, Neighbor-hood Development Center, agreed to offer this train-ing to this geographic area in Minneapolis.
During this 16-week entrepreneurial training, the participants began to discuss how they could develop individual businesses that would be profitable, with-out competing with one another. The participants agreed to develop a “cooperative” that would allow each business owner to make a profit, while working together and supporting each other’s efforts.
Reflecting on their assets and cultures, this coop-erative decided to build the Mercado Central, which is a central marketplace for people to gather, shop, and socialize.
The plan that emerged from the coordinating committee was fairly complex. A plan was devel-oped for the Mercado Central. Land was purchased. A business development plan was formulated for the business start-ups. In addition, financing for the Mercado Central was obtained from about 25 sources—including banks, the city of Minneapo-lis, foundations, local corporations, nonprofit devel-opment organizations, and the Catholic Campaign for Human Development.
Many residents of this geographic area contrib-uted their time, talents, capabilities, and assets to transform this geographic area from a “seedy dis-trict” into a thriving community that is a source of pride and a cultural treasure.
An asset-based community development has the potential to turn other deteriorated neighborhoods into communities that will prosper and flourish.
Human Rights and Social JusticeIn recent years, the Council on Social Work Educa-tion has placed increased emphasis on human rights. Its 2015 Educational Policy and Accreditation Stan-dards (EPAS) declare the following:
Social workers understand that every person regardless of position in society has fundamental human rights such as freedom, safety, privacy, an adequate standard of living, health care, and education. Social workers understand the global interconnections of oppression and human rights violations, and are knowledgeable about theories of human need and social justice and strategies to promote social and economic justice and human rights. Social workers understand strategies designed to eliminate oppressive structural barriers to ensure that social goods, rights, and responsibilities are distributed equitably and that civil, political, environmental, economic, social, and cultural human rights are protected.
Reichert (2007), however, points out that “hu-man rights” has received very limited attention in social work curriculum, course materials, and lec-tures. Often, a human rights focus is “invisible” in social work curriculum. Social work literature continually prefers the term “social justice” in analyzing core values relevant to the social work profession.
Social justice is an “ideal” in which all mem-bers of a society have the same opportunities, basic rights, obligations, and social benefits. Integral to this value, social workers have an obligation to en-gage in advocacy to confront institutional inequities, prejudice, discrimination, and oppression.
Human rights are conceived to be fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being. Human rights
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 71
are thus universal (applicable everywhere) and egali-tarian (the same for everyone).
Reichert (2007, p. 4) compares the concepts of “human rights” and “social justice”:
Human rights provide the social work profession with a global and contemporary set of guidelines, whereas social justice tends to be defined in vague terminology such as fairness versus unfairness of equality versus inequality . . . This distinction gives human rights an authority that social justice lacks. Human rights can elicit discussion of common issues by people from all walks of life and every comer of the world.
What are basic “human rights”? A clear specifi-cation of basic human rights has not been agreed upon. A key starting point in articulating such rights is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDR; United Nations, 1948). The rights identi-fied in this document are as follows:
● All humans are born free and equal in dignity and rights
● Everyone is entitled to all of the rights in the UNDR, regardless of any distinction
● The right to life, liberty, and the security of the person
● Prohibition of slavery ● Prohibition of torture ● Right to recognition as a person before the law ● All must be treated equally under the law ● Right to a remedy of any violation of these rights ● Prohibition of arbitrary arrest, detention, or exile ● Right to a fair trial ● People shall be presumed innocent until proven
guilty ● Right to freedom from arbitrary interference with
private life ● Right to freedom of movement ● Right to seek asylum ● Right to a nationality ● Right to many; marriage must be consented to by
both parties; the family is entitled to protection from the state
● Right to property ● Right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion ● Right to freedom of opinion and expression ● Right to freedom of assembly and association ● Right to participate in the government of one’s country
● Right to economic, social, and cultural rights neces-sary for dignity and free development of personality
● Right to work and equitable compensation ● Right to rest and leisure from work ● Right to an adequate standard of living, including
food, clothing, housing, and medical care ● Right to education ● Right to participate in cultural activities and to
share in scientific achievements ● Right to a world order in which these rights can
be realized ● Each has duties to their community; rights shall
be limited only in regard to respecting the rights of others
● None of the rights may be interpreted as allowing any action to destroy these rights
Every member nation of the United Nations has approved this Declaration. Yet it is not legally binding on any nation. Because this Declaration articulates human rights in somewhat vague terms, it is some-times difficult to determine when (or if) a country/ government is violating basic human rights.
Most countries now recognize that safeguard-ing, human rights has evolved into a major, world-wide goal. Yet identifying violations is currently an imprecise science. It is common for a government to accuse other governments of violating human rights while at the same time “overlooking” its own viola-tions. Reichert (2007, p. 8) states the following:
The United States, compared to many other countries, fails to fulfill its obligation to promote human rights for all . . . The infant mortality rate is higher in the United States than in any other industrialized nation . . . and, within the U.S. itself, infant mortality rates are disparate among racial groups, with African American infants suffering a mortality rate more than twice that of non-Hispanic whites.
It is hoped that greater attention to articulating basic human rights will lead countries to initiate pro-grams that safeguard such rights for all citizens. In-creased attention to articulating and protecting basic human rights has the promise of being a key coun-tervailing force in curbing discrimination against people of color, women, persons with a disabilities, gays and lesbians, and other groups that are cur-rently victimized by discrimination.
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2 72 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 5 Outline Some Guidelines for Social Work Practice with Racial and Ethnic Groups
Social Work Practice with Racial and Ethnic GroupsSocial workers and other helping persons have many of the prejudices, stereotypes, and misperceptions of the general society. There is a danger that a social worker will use her or his own cultural, social, or economic values in assessing and providing services to clients.
The problematic nature of cross-cultural social work does not preclude its effectiveness. While many white practitioners can establish productive working relationships with minority clients, others cannot. In other instances, minority practitioners are some-times effective and sometimes not with others of the same race or ethnic group.
Ethnic-Sensitive PracticeTraditionally, professional social work practice has used the medical model for the delivery of services. The medical model is a deficit model that focuses on identifying problems or deficits within a person. The medical model largely ignores environmental factors that impact the person-in-situation. A ma-jor shortcoming of a deficit model is that it focuses on the deficits of a person or a group while ignor-ing strengths and resources. Emphasizing people’s shortcomings is apt to have a severe negative effect on their self-esteem—they may define themselves in terms of shortcomings and, in the process, overlook strengths and resources.
A better model is ethnic-sensitive practice, which seeks to incorporate understanding of diverse ethnic, cultural, and minority groups into the theories and principles that guide social work practice (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996). Ethnic-sensitive practice is based on the view that practice must be attuned to the values and dispositions related to clients’ ethnic group membership and social-class position. Ethnic-sensitive practice requires that social workers have an in-depth understanding of the effects of oppres-sion on racial and ethnic groups.
Another important aspect of the conceptual framework is the “dual perspective” mentioned in
Chapter 3 (Beckett & Johnson, 1995; Norton, 1978). This concept is derived from the view that all people are a part of two systems: (1) the dominant or sus-taining system (the society that one lives in), which is the source of power and economic resources; and (2) the nurturing system, composed of the physical and social environment of family and community. The dual perspective asserts that the adverse conse-quences of an oppressive society on the self-concept of a person of color or of any minority group can be partially offset by the nurturing system.
Ethnic-sensitive practice holds that social work-ers have a special obligation to be aware of and to seek to redress the oppression experienced by eth-nic groups. Ethnic-sensitive practice assumes that each ethnic group’s members have a history that has a bearing on the members’ perceptions of current problems. For example, the individual and collec-tive history of many African Americans leads to the expectation that family resources will be available in times of trouble (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996). Ethnic-sensitive practice, however, also assumes that the present is most important. For example, many Mexican American and Puerto Rican women cur-rently feel tension as they attempt to move beyond traditionally defined gender roles into the main-stream as students and paid employees (Devore & Schlesinger, 1996).
Ethnic-sensitive practice introduces no new prac-tice principles or approaches. Instead, it urges the adaptation of prevailing therapies, social work prin-ciples, and skills to take account of ethnic reality. Regardless of which practice approach is used, three concepts and perspectives that are emphasized are empowerment, the strengths perspective, and cultur-ally competent practice.
EmpowermentPeople who work with ethnic or racial groups can help empower members of those groups by coun-tering negative images (established through a long history of discrimination) with positive values or im-ages and an emphasis on the ability of each group member to influence the conditions of his or her life. Empowerment counters hopelessness and pow-erlessness with the belief that each person is able to address problems competently, beginning with a positive view of the self. Empowerment counters op-pression and poverty by helping members of ethnic
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 73
groups increase their ability to make and implement basic life decisions.
Strengths PerspectiveThe strengths perspective is closely re-lated to empowerment (see Chapter 1). It emphasizes people’s abilities, in-terests, aspirations, resources, beliefs, and accomplishments. For example, strengths of African Americans in the United States include more than 100 predominantly African American
colleges and universities, fraternal and women’s or-ganizations, and numerous social, political, and professional organizations. Many of the schools, businesses, churches, and organizations that are predominantly African American have developed social service programs—such as family support ser-vices, mentoring programs, food and shelter services, transportation services, and educational and schol-arship programs. Through individual and organized efforts, self-help approaches and mutual aid tradi-tions continue among African Americans. African Americans tend to have strong ties to immediate and extended family. They tend to have a strong religious orientation, a strong work and achievement orienta-tion, and egalitarian role sharing (Billingsley, 1993). See Highlight 5.2.
The following is another example. Stevie Wonder has been among the most influential black music artists over the past five decades (Stevie Wonder web page, 2009). He is a songwriter, producer, singer, and musician. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1989. He was born Steveland Judkins on May 13, 1950, in Saginaw, Michigan. When he was born, he was suffering from a condition called retinopathy of prematurity, which eventually caused his retina to detach, resulting in his blindness. With the support and encouragement of his parents, he learned to play the piano at the age of 7. By the age of 9, he had also mastered playing drums and harmonica. After his family moved to Detroit in 1954, he joined a church choir and began to develop his singing potential. In 1961, at the age of 11, he was discovered by Ronnie White of the group The Miracles, who arranged an audition at Motown Re-cords. Almost immediately he was signed by Berry Gordy to Motown Records. Clarence Paul came up with the “Wonder” surname, as Stevie at the time
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
was being introduced as the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” Clarence Paul also supervised his early re-cordings and helped him develop his singing talents and his talents as a multi-instrumentalist. Why did Stevie Wonder become one of our country’s greatest entertainers? He certainly was born with immense musical potential. But he also had supportive par-ents and a number of mentors and advisers who rec-ognized he had superior musical potential and who helped him develop this musical potential.
The final example is Barack Obama. Obama was elected in 2008 as the first African American Presi-dent of the United States. He was born in 1961 in Honolulu, Hawaii. His mother was Stanley Ann Dunham, born in Wichita, Kansas. She was Cau-casian, and mostly of English ancestry. His father was Barack Obama Sr., from Kenya. The parents of Barack Jr. met in 1960 in a Russian language class at the University of Hawaii. The couple married on Feb. 2, 1961, and separated in 1963. They officially divorced in 1964.
How did Barack Jr. find the “path,” resources, and inspiration to eventually seek to become the first African American president? In his book, Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance (1995), Barack Jr. assigns most of the credit for his successes (graduating from Harvard Law School, be-ing elected Senator in Illinois, and eventually being elected president) to a large number of supportive and encouraging mentors that he had—including his mother, who attained a PhD; his father, who had a position in Kenya as a senior governmental economist; his maternal grandparents, who helped raise him; his stepfather, who also helped raise him; African American mentors, who guided him to suc-ceed as a biracial person in a society dominated by a white power structure; and a number of teachers who inspired him to further develop his oratory and political skills.
Culturally Competent PracticeCurrent projections indicate that by the middle of the twenty-first century, more than half the popula-tion of the United States will be composed of people of color (Dhooper & Moore, 2001). Increasingly, so-cial workers will be dealing with people who are more diverse, politically more active, and more aware of their rights. It is therefore incumbent on social work-ers to become increasingly culturally competent.
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2 74 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
There are a number of guidelines/principles that compose cultural competence in social work (Dhooper and Moore, 2001; National Associa-tion of Social Workers, 2001, 2015). These guide-lines/principles are “ideal” standards. It should be noted that most social workers are working to-ward meeting these standards; many social work-ers have some limitations in meeting some of these standards.
Social workers need to do the following:
1. Be aware of culture and its pervasive influence.2. Learn about their own culture.3. Learn about other cultures, particularly of the
major client groups they serve.4. Adapt social work skills and intervention ap-
proaches to best serve clients of diverse groups.5. Function in accordance with the ethics, values,
and standards of the profession.
HIGHLIGHT 5.2
the Key to improving the Lives of others is the strengths PerspectiveMost social workers now recognize the importance of the strengths perspective in working with clients. If workers only focus on the shortcomings, weaknesses, deficiencies, and problems of clients, those clients are apt to lose their self-esteem and sense of worth. They are apt to view themselves as “losers,” and give up trying to improve their lives. Once they give up trying, it will be a self-fulfilling prophecy that they will have no chance of becoming self-sufficient. They will live a life of being dependent on society for “handouts.”
On the other hand, if workers treat clients as “equals,” and work with them to help them identify their strengths and resources, these clients will more readily realize they have self-worth, and that they have the capacities to improve their lives, and to improve the lives of their family members. The old adage of the “fish story” is important to remember: If we give a hungry family a fish, we feed them for a day. If we teach them how to fish, we feed them for a lifetime!
Expanding on this analogy, if a worker is assigned to work with a family who is in extreme poverty, and the worker only arranges to have that family receive a monthly check to meet subsistence needs, those family members are apt to view themselves as “losers,” and become chronically dependent on the government. On the other hand, if the worker helps these family members to identify their strengths (such as helping them to recognize their aptitudes for certain jobs and linking them to job training programs), the family members are more likely to have an improved sense of worth, obtain gainful employment, and become productive members of society. (It should be noted that the worker involved with this family also needs to help the family deal with other barriers that the family may face—such as issues with child care, access to quality health care, alcohol or other drug abuse issues, anger management issues, and transportation issues.)
A few additional case examples of the powerful impacts of the strengths perspective will be mentioned. Several years ago I was the faculty supervisor for an intern (Mexican American ethnicity) in a child protective services unit at a human services agency. The field supervisor recommended a final grade of “A1,” praising the following skills of the intern:
building a relationship with clients, problem solving, writing case reports, empathy, and testifying in court.
Later that day I met with the intern on a one-to-one basis. I praised her for excelling and asked her what had led to her doing so well, as she had averaged “B” grades in both her social work course, and in her general education courses. Her answer brought tears to my eyes, and underscored the importance of the strengths perspective. Her response was as follows.
I never told you this, as I don’t want anyone to feel sorry for me. I have a learning disability, known as dyslexia. [Dyslexia is a reading disorder, which also affects writing, spelling, and sometimes speaking. Some well-known people with dyslexia include Steven Spielberg and Whoopi Goldberg.] I had major trouble in learning to read. When I was in the third grade, I was reading only at a first-grade level. I was sent to the school social worker for an evaluation. The social worker noted I had the strengths of being highly motivated to learn to read, and that I was working very hard to learn to do so in school and at home. This social worker referred me to the school psychologist, who tested me and discovered I was dyslexic.
In this third grade, some teachers were advocating that I be placed in Special Ed courses. I did not want the stigma that is attached to being a Special Ed child. This social worker made a major difference in my life. She arranged for me to have a tutor who was skilled in working with children with a learning disability. The worker also met with my parents, who were very supportive of me, and instructed them in how they could help me better learn to read. [As I said,] this social worker made a major difference in my life; she is the reason I chose to major in social work and become a social worker. In my classes in elementary school, middle school, high school, and college, I have always had to work harder than most other students. At this college I have also received services from the students with a disability unit. I think my experience with overcoming dyslexia has facilitated me in empathizing and working with the clients that were assigned to me in field placement.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 75
6. Be knowledgeable about community resources and services, and make appropriate referrals for their diverse clients.
7. Be aware of the impacts of social policies and programs on diverse client populations, and ad-vocate for improvements in these programs.
8. Advocate for personnel practices (in hiring, ad-missions, and retention) in social work agencies and educational programs that facilitate diver-sity within the social work profession.
9. Participate in training and educational pro-grams that advance cultural competence in so-cial work practice.
10. Provide or advocate for the conveying of infor-mation and services (including using interpret-ers) in language that clients comprehend.
Ethical Question 5.5
EP 1
How culturally competent are you?
Cultural HumilityIn recent years the social work profession has been advocating the adoption of the construct of “Cul-tural humility” into social work practice. Cultural humility is somewhat related to cultural competence. The two will be contrasted. The goal of cultural competence is to build an understanding of diverse cultures in order to better and more appropriately provide services. The goal of cultural humility is to encourage personal reflection and growth around culture in order to increase the cultural awareness of service providers.
Three factors are involved in a worker progressing toward cultural humility. The first factor is a lifelong commitment to self-evaluation and self-critique. This factor encourages lifelong learning with no end goal, but with and appreciation of the journey of growth and understanding. We never arrive at a point where we are done learning!
The second factor of cultural humility is a com-mitment to fixing power imbalances where no power imbalance ought to exist. This factor encourages so-cial workers to realize their own power, prejudices, and privilege; and to be willing to accept that ac-quired credentials and educational degrees alone are
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2 76 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
insufficient to address social inequality. This factor encourages workers to embrace the idea of learning with and from clients.
The third factor of cultural humility is a com-mitment to develop partnerships with people and groups who advocate for advancing the human rights of members of diverse groups. Advocacy groups can often have more of an impact on changing oppres-sive policies, practices, and systems than individuals acting alone. This factor of cultural humility offers clients a mechanism by which they can be seen and heard.
Cultural humility is a tool (a mindset) that should be used by social workers to gain more insight into their personal biases, and to better connect with members of diverse groups. Social workers need to be aware that they can never be truly “compe-tent” about any culture that differs from their own culture.
Learning the Culture of the GroupIn working with a diverse culture, the following questions are crucial: How are the members likely to view someone from a different culture? What kinds of communications and actions are likely to lead to the development of a constructive relation-ship? How do members view asking for help from a social agency? If the agency is viewed as being part of the dominant white society that has devalued this group in the past, how are the members likely to view the social agency? What are the values of the group? When the members of this group need help, who are they most likely to turn to—relatives, friends, neighbors, churches, social agencies, the school system, or the local government? What are culturally acceptable ways of providing help to peo-ple in need?
As a corollary of becoming accepted by clients of diverse racial or ethnic groups, the social worker must live his or her personal life in a manner that will not offend important values and mores of those groups.
There are an immense number and variety of ra-cial and ethnic groups in our society. It is beyond the scope of this chapter to describe the unique characteristics of these diverse groups. Instead, a few characteristics of some minority groups will be summarized to illustrate the importance of learn-ing about the minority group of a client. For ex-ample, when working with Native Americans, it is
considered rude—an attempt to intimidate, in fact—to maintain direct eye contact (Hull, 2010).
Chicano men, as contrasted to Anglo men, have been described as exhibiting greater pride in their maleness (Schaefer, 2015). Machismo—a strong sense of masculine pride—is highly valued among Chicano men and is displayed by males to express dominance and superiority. Machismo is demon-strated differently by different people. Some may seek to be irresistible to women and to have a num-ber of sexual partners. Some resort to weapons or fighting. Some interpret machismo to mean pride in one’s manhood, honor, and ability to provide for one’s family. Others boast of their achievements, even those that never occurred. Recent writers have noted that the feminist movement, urbanization, upward mobility, and acculturation are contribut-ing to the decline of machismo (Schaefer, 2015). Chicanos also tend to be more “familistic” than Anglos. Familism is the belief that the family takes precedence over the individual. Familism has a num-ber of components, including the following. Family members believe in the benefits of financially taking care of one another. Compadrazgo (the godparent–godchild relationship) is valued, as is seeking and re-ceiving advice from relatives. The active involvement of older persons in the family is valued. Close family ties help maintain the mental and social well-being of older persons in the family. The extended family approach provides emotional strength in times of crisis.
On the negative side, familism may discourage youth from pursuing opportunities that will take them away from the family. It should be noted that differences between Chicanos and Anglos with re-gard to machismo and familism are ones of degree, not of kind.
Hull (2010) suggests that natural support sys-tems are a useful resource in providing assistance to Chicanos. These support systems include extended family, folk healers, religious institutions, and mer-chant and social clubs. The extended family includes the family of origin, nuclear family members, other relatives, godparents, and those considered to be like family. Folk healers are prominent in Chicano communities. Some use treatments that blend natu-ral healing methods with religious or spiritual be-liefs. Religious institutions (especially the Roman Catholic church) provide such services as pastoral counseling, emergency money, job-locating and
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 7 7
housing assistance, and some specialized programs, such as drug abuse treatment and prevention. Mer-chant and social clubs can provide such items as na-tive foods, herbs, referral to other resources, credit and information, prayer books, recreation, and the services of healers. The reluctance of Chicano cli-ents to seek help from a social welfare agency can be reduced by use of these natural support systems. Outreach can be done through churches and com-munity groups. If a social welfare agency gains a reputation for using such natural support systems in the intervention process, Chicanos will have greater trust in the agency and be much more apt to seek help. Utilizing such natural support systems also in-creases the effectiveness of the intervention process.
Religious organizations that are predominantly African American usually have a social and spiri-tual mission. They are apt to be highly active in efforts to combat racial discrimination. Many prominent African American leaders, such as the late Martin Luther King Jr. and Jesse Jackson, have been members of the clergy. African American churches have served to develop leadership skills. They have also served as social welfare organiza-tions to meet such basic needs as food, clothing, and shelter. African American churches are natu-ral support systems that workers need to utilize to serve troubled African American individuals and families.
Self-Awareness of Values, Prejudices, and StereotypesBecause social workers live in a society in which ra-cial and ethnic prejudices abound, they also have prejudices and stereotypes. Think about these ques-tions: In the past year, have you listened to racial or ethnic jokes? Did you laugh? If you did laugh, do you think your laughter, in a small way, was per-petuating some racial or ethnic stereotypes? Have you told in the past year some racial or ethnic jokes? If yes, was the content derogatory? By telling such jokes, are you demonstrating some of your preju-dices and stereotypes? By telling such jokes, are you not, in some way, reinforcing some of the harmful stereotypes and prejudices that exist in our society?
Racial and ethnic prejudices can be demonstrated by the following exercise:
Assume you are single; place a check mark beside the ethnic and racial groups that you would be hesi-tant or reluctant to marry a member of:
IranianChineseJapaneseSamoanFilipinoAfrican AmericanNative AmericanItalianMexican
White AmericanEgyptianIrishCubanPuerto RicanGermanVietnameseFrenchRussian
If you have checked some of these (most people check several), analyze your thoughts as to why you would be hesitant to marry someone from the groups you have checked. There is a fair chance that such an analysis will help you identify some of your prejudices.
A helping professional needs to be aware of his or her racial and ethnic stereotypes and prejudices in order to remain objective in working with clients. When working with a client of a group that you have negative perceptions about, you should continually be asking the following questions:
● Am I individualizing this person as a unique per-son with worth, or am I making the mistake of viewing this person in terms of my prejudices and stereotypes?
● Am I working up to my full capacities with this individual?
● Am I seeking to cut corners by probing less deeply, by not fully informing this person of the services he or she is eligible for, or by wanting to end the interview before fully exploring all the client’s problems and all possible alternatives?
When we have negative stereotypes about some-one, there is a strong likelihood that we will discrimi-nate against that person in providing services. Being aware of our stereotypes is the first step in prevent-ing such discrimination.
Application of Theory to Practice: Techniques of InterventionAlong with cultural knowledge and self-awareness, the social worker needs to learn which interven-tion approaches are likely to be effective, and which are likely to be ineffective, with the ethnic or racial group he or she is working with. Several guidelines will be presented for illustrative purposes.
Social workers should seek to use their own pat-terns of communication and avoid the temptation to adopt the client’s accent, vocabulary, or speech
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2 78 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
(Hull, 2010). The worker who seeks to speak like the client is apt to make mistakes in enunciations, and thereby come across as a phony, or may offend the client if the client interprets the worker’s communi-cation to be mimicry.
A social worker with an urban background who has a job in a small rural community needs to live his personal life in a way that is consistent with com-munity values and standards. A worker who gains a reputation as being a violator of community norms will not be effective in a small community. Neither the power structure nor a majority of clients is likely to give such a worker credibility. A worker in a small community needs to identify community values in areas such as religious beliefs and patterns of expres-sion, dating and marriage patterns, values toward domestic and wild animals (e.g., opposing deer hunt-ing in many communities may run counter to strong local values), drug usage, political beliefs and values, and sexual mores. Once such values are identified, the social worker needs to seek to achieve a balance between the kind of lifestyle he wants and the kind of lifestyle the community expects he will live.
Hull (2007) recommends using all of the formali-ties in initial meetings with adult clients of diverse racial and ethnic groups. Such usage should include the formal title (Mr., Miss, Mrs., Ms., Dr.), the client’s proper full name, greeting with a handshake, and the other courtesies usually extended. In initial contacts, workers should also usually show their agency identi-fication and state reasons for the meeting.
Agencies and social workers should establish working hours that coincide with the needs of the groups being served. Doing so may mean having eve-ning and weekend hours to avoid forcing clients, who may already have financial difficulties, to lose time from their jobs.
In the area of group services to racially diverse clients, Hull (2010) recommends that membership be selected in such a manner that no one race vastly outnumbers the others. Sometimes it is necessary to educate clients about the processes of individual or group counseling. Using words common to general conversation is much better than using technical and sophisticated jargon that clients are not likely to comprehend.
In working with adult clients who are not fluent in the English language, it is generally a mistake to use bilingual children of the clients as interpreters (Hull, 2010). Having children as interpreters is embarrassing
to the parents because it places them in a position of being partially dependent on their children and erro-neously suggests the parents are deficient in learning essential communication mechanisms. In addition, children often lack an adult’s knowledge, which re-duces their value as interpreters. Also, when using interpreters, the worker should direct his or her con-versation to the client and not to the interpreter. Talk-ing to the interpreter diverts attention from the client and places the client in the position of bystander rather than the central figure in the relationship.
Native Americans place a high value on the prin-ciple of self-determination (Hull, 2010). This some-times provides a perplexing dilemma for a social worker who wonders, How can I help if I can’t inter-vene? Native Americans will request intervention only infrequently, and the non–Native American worker needs to have patience and wait for the request. How long this will take varies. During the waiting period, the non–Native American worker should be available and may offer assistance as long as there is no hint of coercion. Once help is accepted, the worker will be tested. If the client believes the worker has been helpful, the word will spread, and the worker is likely to have more requests for help. If the client concludes the worker is lacking in helpful capacities, this assess-ment will also spread, and the worker will be less apt to be sought out by potential clients.
In establishing rapport with African American, Hispanic, or Native American clients, or members of other groups that have suffered from racial op-pression, a peer relationship should be sought in which there is mutual respect and mutual sharing of information. A white-superiority type of relation-ship should be totally rejected because it is likely to be interpreted by racially diverse clients as being offensive—which it is.
For clients who have emotional or behavioral issues, there are over a hundred intervention ap-proaches that have been developed—some of which are much more effective than others. In seeking to select an intervention approach, social workers should be guided by evidence-based practice (EBP). EBP urges social workers to use the best available scientific knowledge from existing outcome studies to select which intervention approach to use. Ideally (although studies may not be available), the interven-tion approach that is selected should have evidence of being effective with the racial or ethnic group that the client is a member of.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 79
Social Work Roles for Countering DiscriminationSocial workers have an obligation to work vigorously to end racial discrimination as well as other forms of discrimination. The major professional social work organizations have, over the years, taken strong po-sitions aimed at ending racial discrimination. The National Association of Social Workers, for exam-ple, has lobbied for the passage of civil rights leg-islation. The NASW Code of Ethics (1999) has the following explicit statement about discrimination:
Social workers should act to prevent and eliminate domination of, exploitation of and discrimination against any person, group, or class on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, age, marital status, political belief, religion, or mental or physical disability. (p. 24)
The Council on Social Work Education (CSWE), in its Educational Policy and Accreditation Stan-dards (EPAS) (2015), requires that baccalaureate and master’s programs in social work include con-tent on racism in the social work curriculum. The EPAS also requires that accredited programs provide considerable content on diversity and on the promo-tion of social and economic justice. Professional so-cial work education is committed to preparing social work students to understand and appreciate cultural and social diversity. Students are taught to under-stand the dynamics and consequences of oppres-sion, and they learn to use intervention strategies to combat social injustice, oppression, and their effects. There is an Association of Black Social Workers that has been very active in combating racial prejudice and discrimination.
In working to end racial and other forms of dis-crimination, social workers can take on a variety of roles. They can be advocates for equal treatment for those who are being oppressed or discriminated against. They can be analysts of societal conditions that result in institutional racism and then be ad-vocates for the development of programs to coun-ter such racism. They can be initiators of action by seeking to inform social service systems and the po-litical systems of social injustices and then advocat-ing for changes in policies and programs. At times, they can fulfill an educator role by giving informa-tion on options to counter oppression and by con-veying information on how to organize and advocate for change. If several organizations are working
somewhat independently to counter related forms of discrimination and oppression, social workers can serve as integrators/coordinators by seeking to have these organizations form a coalition in which they work together in some organized manner to effect change. At times, social workers may, in the role of counselor, work with oppressed individuals and small groups to problem-solve personal concerns related to being victimized by oppression and discrimina-tion. Social workers may also be brokers, by linking oppressed client systems with needed resources.
LO 6 Forecast the Pattern of Race and Ethnic Relations in the United States in the Future
The Future of U.S. Race and Ethnic RelationsIt is clear that minorities such as African Americans, Hispanics, Asian Americans, and Native Americans will assertively, and sometimes aggressively, pursue a variety of strategies to change racist prejudices and actions. Counteractions by certain segments of the white dominant group are also likely to occur. (Even in the social sciences, every action elicits a reaction.) For example, organizations that advocate white su-premacy, such as the Ku Klux Klan, continue to at-tract new members.
Minorities have been given hope of achieving equality of opportunity and justice. Their hope has been kindled, and they will no longer submit to a subordinate status. Struggles to achieve racial equal-ity will continue.
What will be the pattern of race relations in the future? M. Gordon (1961) outlined three possible patterns of intergroup relations: Anglo-conformity, melting pot, and cultural pluralism.
Anglo-conformity assumes the desirability of maintaining modified English institutions, language, and culture as the dominant standard in American life. In practice, “assimilation” in America has always meant Anglo-conformity, and the groups that have been most readily assimilated have been those that are ethnically and culturally most similar to the Anglo-Saxon group [early British colonists].
The melting pot is, strictly speaking, a rather different concept, which views the future American
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2 8 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
society not as a modified England but rather as a totally new blend, both culturally and biologically, of all the various groups that inhabit the United States. In practice, the melting pot has been of only limited significance in the American experience.
Cultural pluralism implies a series of coexisting groups, each preserving its own tradition and culture but each loyal to an overarching American nation. Although the cultural enclaves of some immigrant groups, such as the Germans, have declined in importance in the past, many other groups, such as the Italians, have retained a strong sense of ethnic identity and have resisted both Anglo-conformity and inclusion in the melting pot. (pp. 363–365)
Members of some European ethnic groups such as the British, French, and Dutch formed the domi-nant culture of the United States. Other European ethnic groups such as the Irish, Italians, Polish, Germans, Scandinavians, Greeks, and Hungarians are now nearly fully assimilated and integrated.
Cultural pluralism appears to be the form that race and ethnic relations are presently taking. Renewed interest on the part of a number of ethnic European Americans in expressing their pride in their own customs, religions, and linguistic and cultural tradi-tions is evident. Slogans on buttons and signs say, “Kiss me, I’m Italian,” “Irish Power,” and “Polish and Proud.” African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans are demanding en-try into mainstream America but are not demanding assimilation. They want coexistence in a pluralistic society while seeking to preserve their own traditions and cultures. They are finding a source of identity and pride in their own cultural backgrounds and histories.
Some progress has been made toward ending dis-crimination since the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954. Yet equal opportunity for all peo-ple in the United States is still only a dream.
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to
LO 1 Define and describe ethnic groups, ethnocen-trism, race, racism, prejudice, discrimination, op-pression, and institutional discrimination.
An ethnic group is a distinct group of people who share a common language, set of customs, history, culture, race, religion, or origin.
Ethnocentrism is an orientation or set of beliefs that views one’s own culture, ethnic or racial group, or nation as superior to others.
Race is a social concept; it is the way in which members of a society classify each other by physical characteristics.
Racism is stereotyping and generalizing about people, usually negatively, because of their race; it is commonly a basis of discrimination against mem-bers of racial minority groups.
Prejudice is a negative opinion about an individ-ual, group, or phenomenon that is developed with-out proof or systematic evidence.
Discrimination is the negative treatment of peo-ple based on identifiable characteristics such as race, gender, religion, or ethnicity.
Oppression is the social act of placing severe re-strictions on a group or institution.
Institutional discrimination is prejudicial treat-ment in organizations based on official policies, overt behaviors, or behaviors that may be covert but approved by those with power.
LO 2 Outline the sources of prejudice and discrimination.Theories about the sources of prejudice and discrim-ination include projection, frustration-aggression, countering insecurity and inferiority, the authoritar-ian personality, historical explanations, competition and exploitation, socialization processes, the belief in only one true religion, and white supremacy.
LO 3 Summarize the effects and costs of discrimi-nation and oppression and describe the effects of discrimination on human growth and development.Being discriminated against makes it more difficult to obtain adequate housing, financial resources, a quality education, employment, adequate health care and other services, equal justice in civil and criminal cases, and so on. It has heavy psychological costs, as it makes it more difficult to develop a posi-tive identity. It impairs intergroup cooperation and communication. It is a factor contributing to social problems among minorities. It lowers life expectancy among minorities. It undermines some of our na-tion’s political goals, such as being an advocate for human rights and equality.
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Ethnocentrism and Racism 2 81
LO 4 Suggest strategies for advancing social and economic justice.Strategies against discrimination include mass me-dia appeals, increased interaction between minority groups and the majority group, civil rights legislation, protests and activism, affirmative action, minority-owned businesses, confronting racist and ethnic re-marks and actions, confronting problems in inner cities, and asset-based community development.
LO 5 Outline some guidelines for social work prac-tice with racial and ethnic groups.Guidelines include ethnic-sensitive practice, em-powerment, the strengths perspective, culturally competent practice, and cultural humility. The key to improving the lives of others appears to be the strengths perspective.
LO 6 Forecast the pattern of race and ethnic relations in the United States in the future.Three possible patterns of inter-group ethnic and race relations in the future are Anglo-conformity, melting pot, and cultural pluralism. Cultural plu-ralism is the form that race and ethnic relations are presently taking, and may well take in the future.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and practice behaviors are dis-cussed in the chapter.
EP 2a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;
EP 2b. Present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as experts of their own experiences;
EP 2c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies;
EP 3a. Apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels;
EP 3b. Engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice. (All of this chapter.)
The content of this chapter focuses on ethnocen-trism and racism. Material is covered on the above behaviors throughout this chapter.
EP 6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP 7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
EP 8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (pp. 268–270)The strengths perspective is presented as a frame-work for creating positive changes in communities
EP 6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP 7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment of data from clients and constituencies;
EP 8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary; theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (pp. 273–274)The strengths perspective is presented as a frame-work for creating positive changes in individuals, groups, and families.
EP 1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 241, 246, 266, 267, 275)Ethical questions are posed.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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2 82
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Roger sat in study hall gazing out the window. He had an intense, pained expression on his face. Roger was 15 years old, and not one thing was going right for him. His arms were too long for the rest of his body. He felt like he couldn’t walk from the desk to the door without tripping at least once. Homecoming was coming up soon, and his face suddenly looked like a pepperoni pizza. Amanda, the light of his life, wouldn’t even acknowledge his existence. To top it all off, even if he managed to get Amanda to go to homecoming with him, he’d still either have to scrounge up another older couple to drive or else have his father drive them to the dance. How humiliating. Roger continued to gaze out the study hall window. The primary theme in his thoughts was, Life is hard.
Biological Development in aDolescence
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 8 3
Change and adjustment characterize adolescence. Roger is not unique. Like other people his age, he is trying to cope with drastic physical changes, increasing sexual awareness, desires to fit in with the peer group, and the desperate need to develop a personal identity.
We have established that the attainment of developmental milestones is directly related to human behavior. We have also established that within any individual, the biological, psychological, and social aspects of development mutually affect each other. Together, they interact and significantly impact growth, change, and ultimately, well-being.
Biological development and maturation affect both how adolescents perceive themselves and how they behave. Rapid and uneven physical growth may cause awkwardness, which may result in feeling self-conscious and consequently uncomfortable in social interactions. For example, some psychological and behavioral differences exist between males who develop earlier or later and those who develop at an average rate.
Biological development often affects the transactions between individuals and their immediate social environments. For instance, when adolescents begin to attain physical and sexual maturity, sexual relationships may begin to develop. Likewise, new and different alternatives become available to adolescents and young adults as they mature. For example, alternatives concerning sexuality may range from no sexual activity to avid and frequent sexual relations. These new alternatives merit evaluation in terms of their positive and negative consequences. Decisions need to be made about such critical issues as whether to have sexual relations and which, if any, methods of contraception to use.
A PerspectiveChapters 6, 7, and 8 address, respectively, the biological, psychological, and social-environmental aspects of adolescence. The goal is to provide a framework for a better understanding of this difficult yet exciting time of life.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Define adolescenceLO 2 Describe major physical changes during adolescence (including puberty, the growth spurt, the secular trend, and primary and secondary sex characteristics)LO 3 Explain psychological reactions to physical changesLO 4 Describe sexual activity in adolescenceLO 5 Assess sex education and empowermentLO 6 Identify sexually transmitted diseasesLO 7 Explain major methods of contraception
EP 6aEP 6bEP 8b
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2 8 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 1 Define AdolescenceAdolescence is the transitional period between child-hood and adulthood during which young people mature physically and sexually. The word is derived from the Latin verb adolescere, which means “to grow into maturity.”
There is no precise time when adolescence be-gins or ends, although it usually extends from about age 11 or 12 to the late teens or early 20s. Adoles-cence should be differentiated from puberty, which is more specific. Adolescence might be considered a cultural concept that refers to a general time during life. Puberty, on the other hand, is a physical concept that refers to the specific time during which people mature sexually and become capable of reproduc-tion. The word puberty is derived from a Latin word meaning “to grow hairy” (Nairne, 2014, p. 97).
Some societies have specific rites of passage or events to mark the transition from childhood into adulthood. For example, among the Mangaia of the South Pacific (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Marshall, 1980), when a boy reached the age of 12 or 13 years, he participated in a ceremony where a superincision was made on his penis. The cut was made along the entire length of the top of the penis. After the completion of this extremely painful ceremony, the boy ran out into the ocean or a stream to ease the pain. He then typically exclaimed, “Now I am really a man.”
Our society has no such distinct entry point into adulthood. Although we might breathe a sigh of relief at not having such a painful custom, we’re still left with the problem of the vague transitional period we call adolescence. There are no clear-cut guidelines for how adolescents are supposed to behave. On the one hand, they are children, but on the other hand, they are adults.
Some occurrences tend to contribute to becom-ing an adult. These include getting a driver’s license, graduating from high school, graduating from col-lege, and perhaps getting married. However, not all individuals do these things. Some young people drop out of high school, and many high school graduates don’t go on to college. Substantial numbers of young people choose not to marry or to marry much later in life. Even people who do go through these rites do so with varying levels of maturity and ability to handle responsibility. At any rate, becoming an adult still remains a confusing concept.
The gradual, but major, physical changes do not help to clarify the issue. Adolescents must strive to
cope with drastic changes in size and form, in addi-tion to waves of new hormones sweeping through their bodies. Resulting emotions are often unex-pected and difficult to control. This time can be very difficult for an adolescent struggling with their gen-der identity. Within this perspective of change and adjustment, we will look more closely at specific physical changes and at the effects of these changes on the developing personality.
LO 2 Describe Major Physical Changes During AdolescenceA range of physical changes occur during adoles-cence. These include puberty, a growth spurt, results of the secular trend, and the development of pri-mary and secondary sex characteristics.
PubertyPuberty is marked by the sudden enlargement of the reproductive organs and sexual genitalia, and the de-velopment of secondary sex characteristics (features that distinguish the genders but are not directly involved in reproduction). Most girls begin puberty around 8 to 12 years of age, while boys are 2 years later (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Girls tend to at-tain their full height by about age 16, whereas boys may continue to grow until age 18 to 20 (Sigelman & Rider, 2012).
The two-year age difference in beginning puberty causes more than its share of problems for adoles-cents. Girls tend to become interested in boys before boys begin noticing girls. One dating option for girls involves older boys of the middle or late teens. This can serve to substantially raise parental anxiety. An option for boys is to date girls who tower over them.
There is a wide age span for both boys and girls when puberty begins. Although in general, there is a two-year difference, substantial individual dif-ferences also must be taken into account. In other words, one boy may begin puberty four years earlier than another.
What causes the abrupt and extraordinary changes brought on by puberty? Acting as a catalyst for all of these changes is an increase in the production of hor-mones. Hormones are chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands. Among other things, they
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 85
stimulate growth of sexual organs and characteristics. Each hormone targets specific areas and stimulates growth. For example, testosterone directly affects growth of the penis, facial hair, areas in the brain, and even cartilage in the shoulder joints. In women, the uterus and vagina respond to the female hormones of estrogen and progesterone. For transgender ado-lescents, puberty may be the time they start to con-sider reassignment surgery. This is a difficult decision for both transgender adolescents and their families. They must weigh the pros and cons of any operation (which in the case of fully transitioning may involve multiple operations) and attempt to determine the best time for surgery (before or after puberty). Social workers need to work closely with the adolescents, their parents, and medical professionals to determine the best course of action.
The Growth SpurtThe initial entrance into puberty is typically char-acterized by a sharp increase in height. During this spurt, boys and girls may grow between 2 and 5 inches. Before the growth spurt, boys tend to be 2 percent taller than girls. However, because girls start the spurt earlier, they tend to be taller, to weigh more, and to be stronger than boys during ages 11 to 13. By the time both sexes have completed the spurt, boys once again are usually larger than girls.
The adolescent growth spurt affects virtually the entire body, including most aspects of the skeletal and muscular structure. However, boys and girls grow differently during this period. Boys’ shoul-ders get relatively wider, and their legs and fore-arms relatively longer, than those of girls. Girls, on the other hand, grow wider in the pelvic area and hips. This is to enhance childbearing capability. Girls also tend to develop a layer of fat over the abdomen, hips, and buttocks during puberty. This eventually will give a young woman a more shapely, rounded physique. However, the initial chubby appearance can cause the adolescent a substantial amount of emotional stress. Crash and starvation diets can create a physical health hazard during this period.
Adolescents tend to have unequal and dispro-portionate growth. Most adolescents have some fea-tures that look disproportionate. The head, hands, and feet reach adult size and form first, followed by the legs and arms. Finally, the body’s trunk reaches
its full size. A typical result of this unequal growth is motor awkwardness and clumsiness. Until the growth of bones and muscles stabilizes, and the brain adjusts to an essentially new body, awkward bursts of motion and misjudgments of muscular control will result.
The Secular TrendPeople generally grow taller and bigger than they did a century ago. They also reach sexual maturity and their adult height faster than in the past. This ten-dency toward increasing size and earlier achievement of sexual maturity is referred to as the secular trend.
The trend apparently has occurred on a world-wide basis, especially in industrialized nations such as those of Western Europe and Japan. This sug-gests that an increased standard of living, along with better health care and nutrition, is related to the trend.
This secular trend seems to have reached its peak and stopped. A 14-year-old boy of today is approximately 5 inches taller than a boy of the same age in 1880.
Primary and Secondary Sex CharacteristicsA major manifestation of puberty is the develop-ment of primary and secondary sex characteristics.
Primary sex characteristics are those directly re-lated to the sex organs and reproduction. The key is that they have a direct role in reproduction. For females, these include development of the uterus, vagina, and ovaries. The ovaries are the major sex glands in a female, which both manufacture sex hormones and produce eggs that are ready for fertilization.
For males, primary sex characteristics include growth of the penis and development of the pros-tate gland and the testes. The prostate gland, which is located below the bladder, is responsible for a sig-nificant portion of the ejaculate or whitish alkaline substance that makes up semen, which carries the sperm. The testes are the male sex glands that both manufacture sex hormones and produce sperm.
We have already defined secondary sex characteristics to include those traits that distinguish the genders from each other but play no direct role in reproduction. These include menstruation, hair growth, development of breasts, growth of reproductive organs, voice changes, skin changes, and nocturnal emissions.
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2 8 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Proof of PubertyOne of the most notable indications that a female has achieved the climax of puberty is her first men-struation, also called menarche. Menstruation is the monthly discharge of blood and tissue debris from the uterus when fertilization has not taken place.
Girls today are experiencing first menstruation at earlier ages than girls growing up three or four decades ago. The average age for first menstruation, menarche (pronounced “men-ar-key”) in the United States is now 12½ years. That means that many girls have their first period before the end of seventh grade, and many begin as early as fourth or fifth grade. It also means that many girls will at least be in the eighth grade before their first period, and some may be seniors in high school before they get a period. All of these situations are normal. (Greenberg, Bruess, & Oswalt, 2014, p. 417)
Note that frequently young females begin to men-struate before they begin to ovulate, so they might not be capable of becoming pregnant for two or more years after menarche (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). During puberty, females also experience an in-creased blood supply to the clitoris (a small structure at the entrance to the vagina that’s highly sensitive to stimulation and gives sexual pleasure), a thickening of the vaginal walls, and significant growth of the uterus, which doubles in size from the beginning of puberty to age 18 (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017)
A wide variation in the age for first menstruation is found from one female to another. A Peruvian girl of age 5 is the youngest mother ever recorded to have a healthy baby. This occurred in 1939. The baby was born by cesarean section. At the time, physicians
found that the mother was mature sexually, and that she apparently had begun menstruation at the age of 1 month. The youngest parents known are an 8-year-old mother and 9-year-old father. This Chinese couple had a son in 1910 (Hyde, 1982). Spotlight 6.1 reviews some recent research on the differences in the age of menarche for various ethnic groups in the United States.
It is somewhat more difficult to establish that a boy has entered the full throes of puberty. In males, hormones cause the testes to increase in size and to begin producing sperm by age 14 on average (Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2014). Increased testosterone production also initiates a growth in penis size, first in thickness and then in length.
Hair GrowthHair begins to grow in the pubic area during pu-berty. After a period of months and sometimes years, this hair changes in texture. It becomes curl-ier, coarser, and darker. About two years after the appearance of pubic hair, axillary hair begins to grow in the armpits. However, the growth of axillary hair varies so much from one person to another that in some people axillary hair appears before pubic hair. Boys’ facial hair also begins to grow on the up-per lip and gradually spreads to the chin and cheeks. Chest hair appears relatively late in adolescence.
Development of BreastsBreast development is usually one of the first signs of sexual maturity in girls. The nipples and areola, the darkened areas surrounding the nipples, enlarge. Breasts initially tend to be cone-shaped and eventu-ally assume a more rounded appearance.
Diversity and menarcheSome research has found differences in the age of menarche among white Americans, A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s, a n d H i s p a n i c Americans (Chumlea et al., 2003). The sample included 2,500 girls aged 8 to 20. African Americans began menstruating significantly earlier than the other two
groups in the study. Hispanic girls also began menstruating earlier than white girls, but not as early as African American girls. Between ages 13½ and 14, a total of 90 percent of girls in all three groups had begun menarche.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 6.1
EP 2aEP 2c
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 87
Some women in our culture tend to be preoccupied with breast size and feel that breasts come in one of two sizes—too small or too large. However, all breasts are functionally equipped with 15 to 20 clusters of mammary or milk-producing glands. Each gland has an individual opening to the nipple or tip of the breast into which the milk ducts open. The glands themselves are surrounded by various amounts of fatty and fi-brous tissue. The nipples are also richly supplied with sensitive nerve endings, which are important in erotic stimulation. There is no indication that breast size is related to a woman’s ability to experience pleasurable sensation (Masters, Johnson, & Kolodny, 1995).
Some adolescent boys also undergo temporary breast development. Although this may cause them some anxiety concerning their masculinity, this enlarge-ment is not abnormal. Hyde and DeLamater (2017) in-dicate that this occurs in approximately 80 percent of boys in puberty. The probable cause is small amounts of female sex hormones produced by the testes. The condition usually disappears within about a year.
Voice ChangesBoys undergo a noticeable lowering in the tone of their voices, usually fairly late in puberty. The pro-cess involves a significant enlargement of the larynx or Adam’s apple and a doubling in the length of the vocal cords. Many times it takes two years or more for boys to gain control over their new voices.
Girls also experience a slight voice change during adolescence, although it’s not nearly as extreme as the change undergone in boys. Girls’ voices achieve a less high-pitched, more mature tone due to a slight growth of the larynx.
Skin ChangesAdolescence brings about increased activity of the se-baceous glands, which manufacture oils for the skin. Skin pores also become coarser and increase in size during adolescence. The result is frequently a rapid production of blackheads and pimples, commonly referred to as acne, on the face and sometimes on the back. Unfortunately, a poor complexion is considered unappealing in many cultures (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). Acne adds to the stress of adolescence. It tends to make young people feel even more self-conscious about their bodies and physical appearance.
Nocturnal EmissionsApproximately 90 percent of men and 40 percent of women experience nocturnal emission sometime in
their lives (Yarber & Sayad, 2016). A nocturnal emis-sion, also referred to as a wet dream, is the ejacula-tion or emission of semen while a male is asleep. The highest frequency of approximately once a month tends to occur during the late teens. The number then tapers off during the 20s, and finally stops after age 30.
Nocturnal emissions are a natural means of re-lieving sexual tension. Often, but not always, they are accompanied by sexual dreams. It’s important that adolescents understand that this is a normal oc-currence and that there’s nothing physically or men-tally wrong with them.
Females also have orgasms during sleep (Yarber & Sayad, 2013). However, these apparently don’t occur as frequently or as early as males’ nocturnal emissions.
LO 3 Explain Psychological Reactions to Physical ChangesOne thing that marks adolescence is self-criticism. Physical imperfections are sought out, emphasized, and dwelled on. It may be a large lump on a nose. Or it may be an awesome derriere. Or it may even be a dreadful terror of braces locking unroman-tically during a goodnight kiss. Adolescents seek to confor m to their peers. Any aspect that re-mains imperfect or too noticeable becomes the object of criticism. Perhaps it’s because the age is filled with change and mandatory adjustment to that change that adolescents strive to conform. Perhaps before an individual personality can develop, a person needs some predictability and security.
A substantial amount of research focuses on ado-lescents’ perceptions of themselves. Special areas of intense interest include body image, self-concept, weight level, weight worries, and eating disorders.
Body Image and Self-ConceptPerception of one’s body image and attractiveness is re-lated to adolescents’ level of self-esteem, especially for girls (Bearman, Presnall, Martinez, & Vaughn, 2006; Moore & Rosenthal, 2006; Newman & Newman, 2015). People who consider themselves attractive tend to be more self-confident and satisfied with themselves.
Girls generally tend to be more critical of and dis-satisfied with their physical appearance than are boys
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2 8 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
(Newman & Newman, 2015). This is especially true concerning weight. One national survey of adoles-cents explored their thoughts about weight control; 85 percent of respondents thought that girls empha-sized weight control, but only 30 percent thought that boys did (Newman & Newman, 2009). This is prob-ably due to the extreme importance placed on females’ appearance in this culture. For example, a girl might think, “My thighs are too fat, and my butt sticks out too much. I’d really like to fit into size 7 jeans, but can’t get under a size 9. Can girls my age have cellulite?” Chapter 8 discusses eating disorders, which are problems directly related to weight control and self-perception.
Although before puberty levels of depression among girls and boys are similar, during adolescence girls are more likely to experience depression; this is true for white, African American, and Hispanic adoles-cents (Leadbeater, Kuperminc, Blatt, & Hertzog, 1999; Newman & Newman, 2015). This may be due to at least four factors (Newman & Newman, 2015). First, the estrogen cycle is linked to emotional variations and low self-esteem. Second, girls tend to criticize their ap-pearance and weight when they reach puberty. This may set the stage for long-term displeasure with them-selves, eventually resulting in depression. Third, girls tend to blame themselves for their problems and issues. They are more introspectively self-critical. Boys, on the other hand, tend to blame others and things outside of themselves as causes for their problems. Fourth, girls tend to be more perceptive of and upset by experi-ences their friends, family, and others are having. Such sensitivity and deep concern may lead to depression.
Early and Late Maturation in BoysRathus (2014b) summarizes the research on early- and late-maturing boys:
Research findings about boys who mature early are mixed, but most of the evidence suggests that the effects of early maturation are generally positive (Teunissen et al., 2011). Late-maturing boys may feel conspicuous because they are among the last of their peers to lose their childhood appearance. . .
Early-maturing boys tend to be more popular than their late-maturing peers and more likely to be leaders in school (Graber et al., 2004; Windle et al., 2008). Early-maturing boys in general are also more poised, relaxed, and good-natured. Their edge in sports and the admiration of their peers heighten their sense of self-worth. . .
On the negative side, early maturation is associated with greater risks of aggression and delinquency (Lynn et al., 2007) as well as abuse of alcohol and other drugs (Costello et al., 2007; Engels, 2009). (p. 467)
What are the reasons for such negative effects of early maturation in boys? Possibly, early-maturing males may not yet have gained the emotional and intellectual maturity that ongoing development and simple life experience can provide them. Because such boys look older and more mature, other peo-ple might attribute to them greater decision-making skills, perceptiveness, and leadership ability than they actually possess (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001; Newman & Newman, 2015). They might be thrown into situations they can’t handle because they’re not yet ready. Because they look older, they might get involved with older peers and be exposed to situa-tions they’re emotionally and intellectually unable to handle. They might be unprepared to make respon-sible decisions regarding involvement in antisocial behavior.
In comparison to early-maturing boys, prior studies viewed boys who matured late as feeling inferior because of their smaller size and younger appearance. This, in turn, led to lower levels of self-esteem and more adjustment problems (Sigelman & Rider, 2012). It is still thought that late-maturing boys perceive themselves more negatively and feel less popular than their early-maturing counterparts (Santrock, 2016). Late-maturing boys may be denied the respect and attention given to more mature-looking boys.
Ethical Questions 6.1
EP 1
Is it right or fair to place so much importance on external physical appearance, especially when this emphasis concerns weight? Is it equitable that the burden of weight control rests more heavily on women than on men? How have these concerns about weight and physical appearance affected you and aspects of your own biological, psychological, and social development?
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 89
However, one earlier study found that when boys who matured late reached their 30s, they estab-lished a stronger and more robust sense of identity than did those in other maturation groups (Peskin, 1967). Perhaps, dealing with earlier stress made late maturers more resilient and, as a result, stronger. Possibly having more time to mature gave them more opportunities to focus on exploring educa-tional and career options. Or maybe they tended to focus on achievement and personality develop-ment instead of relying on their advanced physical prowess. What comes to mind is a character in a movie who was an unpopular, “geeky nerd” in high school. However, at his 20-year high school reunion, he was admired by all because he had invented and patented a number of high-tech innovations, thus becoming a multimillionaire.
By adulthood, the differences between early and late maturers become much less clear (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2014; Santrock, 2012b). So many other elements are involved in a person’s development, including those that are cognitive and social, that it is difficult to predict the effects of any one vari-able, such as maturation rate. This illustrates an area where practitioners should continue to review and evaluate the research in a pattern of career-long learning in order to understand the dynamics in-volved in and effecting adolescence.
Early and Late Maturation in GirlsA number of studies report that early-maturing girls are disadvantaged in various areas. Santrock (2016) explains:
In recent years, an increasing number of researchers have found that early maturation increases girls’ vulnerability to a number of problems. . . Early-maturing girls are more likely to smoke, drink, be depressed, have an eating disorder, engage in delinquency, struggle for earlier independence from their parents, and have older friends; and their bodies are likely to elicit responses from males that lead to earlier dating and earlier sexual experiences. . . And early-maturing girls are less likely to graduate from high school and more likely to cohabit and marry earlier. (p. 424)
Maybe, as with early-maturing boys, their lack of life experience, level of cognitive development, and naivete put them at risk of problems. They may have to make “adult” choices before they are ready
to accept the consequences of behavior or even ac-knowledge such consequences.
Sigelman and Rider (2012) explain the situation for late-maturing girls:
Late-maturing girls (like late-maturing boys) may experience some anxiety as they wait to mature, but they do not seem to be as disadvantaged as late-maturing boys. Indeed, whereas later-developing boys tend to perform poorly on school achievement tests, later-developing girls outperform other students (Dubas, Graber, & Petersen, 1991). Perhaps late-developing girls focus on academic skills when other girls have shifted some of their focus to extracurricular activities. (p. 159)
The differences between early- and late-maturing girls in adulthood are complex and tentative (Sigelman & Rider, 2012). As with boys, the picture is much more complicated than simply focusing on the life results caused by one specific variable, such as early maturation.
Brain Development During AdolescenceAn adolescent’s brain also undergoes physical changes in response to new hormonal production. Such changes can result in behavioral and emotional consequences. Consider that
the hormonal changes that characterize puberty also influence brain function. The adrenal glands— located near the kidneys—release testosterone-like hormones that attach themselves to receptor sites throughout the brain and directly influence the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine, which play an important role in regulating mood and excitability (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Spear, 2003[b]). Two results of this hormone-induced chain of events are that adolescents’ emotions easily reach a flash point, and they are now more motivated to seek out intense experiences that will thrill, scare, and generally excite them (Paus, 2005; Steinberg, [2006]). Unfortunately, the brain regions that inhibit risky, impulsive behavior are still maturing, so there often is an insufficient internal brake on teenagers’ sensation-seeking desires and roller-coaster emotions (Steinberg, 2004). Where in the brain does this internal brake reside? The primary area is the prefrontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, which are responsible for complicated cognitive activities, such as planning,
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2 9 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
decision making, [and] goal setting. . . However, while the adolescent brain is undergoing hormonal assault, the prefrontal cortex is not quite ready to rein in or redirect the resulting emotions and thrill-seeking desires. Precisely at this time, the prefrontal cortex is experiencing a new phase of brain cell elimination and rewiring based on the use-it-or-lose-it principle. This pruning of unnecessary neuronal connections eventually results in much more efficient and more focused information-processing, and a prefrontal cortex that can serve as a reliable internal brake on runaway emotions and impulsive actions. In the meantime, developmental psychologists recommend that parents serve as the external brake while the adolescent brain is in this new phase of development. (Bjorklund & Blasi, 2012; Franzoi, 2008, p. 111)
During adolescence, boys experience greater changes in their brains than girls (Goldstein et al., 2001; Segovia et al., 2006). This “may account for the increased aggressiveness and irritability often as-sociated with adolescence” (Martin & Fabes, 2009, p. 448).
Adolescent Health, and Substance Use and AbuseDuring any time of life, including adolescence, lifestyle directly impacts health and the ability to function effectively. Discussed here is the use of mind-altering drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.
Use of Mind-Altering SubstancesBerk (2012b) summarizes the current situation:
Teenage alcohol and drug use is pervasive in industrialized nations. According to the most recent, nationally representative survey of U.S. high school students, by tenth grade, 33 percent of U.S. young people have tried smoking, 59 percent drinking and 38 percent at least one illegal drug (usually marijuana). At the end of high school, 1 5 p e rc e n t s m o ke c i ga re t t e s re g u l a rly, a n d 16 percent have engaged in heavy drinking during the past month. About 24 percent have tried at least one highly addictive and toxic substance, such as amphetamines, cocaine, phencyclidine (PCP), Ecstasy (MDMA), inhalants, heroin, sedatives (including barbiturates), or OxyContin (a narcotic painkiller) (Johnston et al., 2010).
These figures represent a substantial decline since the mid-1990s, probably resulting from greater parent, school, and media focus on the hazards of drug taking. But use of some substances—marijuana, inhalants, sedatives, and OxyContin—has risen slightly in recent years (Johnson et al, 2010). Other drugs, such as LSD, PCP, and Ecstasy, have made a comeback as adolescents’ knowledge of their risks faded. (p. 560)
Use of AlcoholWe have established that many young people drink alcohol. Small amounts of alcohol may have a calm-ing effect. However, immediate dangers from alcohol consumption include potential death when used with other drugs and accidents while driving. A scary finding of recent research is that extensive alcohol use as a teenager can cause impairment of mental functioning later on in life (Berk, 2012b; Newman & Newman, 2015).
Variables putting adolescents at risk for alcohol and other substance abuse can be clustered into four categories: environmental factors, peer influ-ences, family influences, and personal characteristics (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 2012). Environmental factors including poverty, in-adequate education, high unemployment, lack of positive role models, and absence of opportunity can place pressure on young people to escape through mind-altering substances. Peer pressure is a second major influence (Lewis, Neighbors, Lindgren, Buck-ingham, & Hoang, 2010). If “everybody’s doing it,” it may be more tempting. Parental factors related to drug use include lack of involvement with children and parents’ failure to monitor adequately their children’s behavior (Dishion, Kavanagh, Schneiger, Nelson, & Kaufman, 2002). If parents appear not to care or don’t provide support or direction, it’s easier for adolescents to succumb to temptation. Another parental factor is the use of alcohol and other sub-stances by the parents themselves. Parents can pro-vide role models for abuse. Personal characteristics of adolescents that increase risk of alcohol and other substance abuse include poor coping skills in response to the powerful emotional pain often ex-perienced in adolescence, relationship and achieve-ment problems at school, and a desire for excitement and self-gratification.
McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, and Mc-Whirter (2013) describe a case scenario portraying the
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 91
reflections of a counselor who worked with one at-risk adolescent.
One of us worked with a 13-year-old boy named Joe for two months after Joe’s mother requested that he receive counseling. She and her husband, Joe’s stepfather, were concerned about his poor school performance, his acting out, his group of “delinquent” friends, and his alternately hostile and completely withdrawn behavior at home.
Joe’s stepfather was a machine operator who provided severe yet inconsistent discipline. Joe disliked his stepfather, and he reported that the dislike was mutual. He described his mother as “nicer,” but complained-that she did not permit him to do what he wanted. His mother was primarily a homemaker, but occasionally she did temporary office work. She frequently placated her husband so that he would not get angry with Joe. She felt Joe needed to change, however, and believed that counseling might “fix” him. Joe’s parents refused to come in for counseling as a family because Joe was the problem.
Joe spent a great deal of time with his friends both during and after school. He reported smoking marijuana and cigarettes fairly regularly. Shortly after our first counseling session, he was arrested for possession of drug paraphernalia. His parents
refused to let him see any of his friends after the arrest.
Joe’s school performance and effort were poor. Joe probably had a mild learning disability, but a recent psycho-educational evaluation had been inconclusive. Joe’s primary problem at school was his acting out. Unfortunately, when Joe got into trouble with a teacher, lie was inadvertently rewarded for his disruption. He could effectively avoid the schoolwork that he found so difficult a n d d i s t a s t e f u l by s i t t i n g i n t h e a s s i s t a n t principal’s office “listening to stupid stories.” Joe was doing so poorly at school and misbehaving with such frequency that his stepfather threatened to send him to a strict boarding school unless his behavior improved. Joe said that would be fine with him because he had heard that the work was easier there. His step-father’s threat to cut his hair short was the only consequence he seemed concerned about.
Joe primarily used marijuana, which did not change during the two months he was in counseling. We don’t know whether Joe experimented with more powerful substances because he showed a great deal of resistance to coming to counseling and seemed very disinterested in changing himself, although he did want his stepfather to move out.
Use of mind-altering substances by adolescents can have devastating effects.
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2 9 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Joe was a frustrated and angry adolescent who resented his parents and received little direction or consistent structure from them. He was unsure of their expectations, hated school, felt isolated from his friends, and could see no solution to his problems. He directed his anxiety and poor self-esteem inward and acted out by skipping school, talking back to his teachers, or roaming the streets with his friends. (pp. 181–182)
Joe’s situation resembles that of many young peo-ple at risk for alcohol and other substance abuse. He received little support and no steady, coherent disci-pline from his parents. He was in constant conflict with his stepfather, whom he disliked intensely. He experienced serious difficulties in school and was rapidly falling behind. It was easy to turn to peers who probably experienced similar problems. Peer pressure then could reinforce problem behaviors and his substance abuse. Joe felt abused, isolated, and ne-glected by parents and school. He avoided responsi-bility for his behavior by escaping through drugs. His parents failed to see problems from a family system perspective and refused to participate in treatment. They eventually removed Joe from counseling. What do you think happened to him?
Following peak use in 1996, smoking rates for U.S. eighth-graders have fallen by 50 percent.
In 2013, the percentages of adolescents who said they had smoked cigarettes in the last 30 days was 16 percent, a 3 percent decrease from 2011 (twelfth grade), 9 percent (tenth grade), and 4/5 percent (eighth grade). (p. 439)
Smoking is related to heart disease. Cigarette smoke contains nicotine, which acts as a stimulant. As nicotine enters the lungs, it is quickly absorbed by the small blood vessels in the lungs and immediately transported throughout the body. As a stimulant, it causes both an increased heart rate and increased blood pressure. Over time, the heart will be over-worked and eventually be damaged.
Lung cancer is another possible consequence of smoking. Cigarette tars and other particles in the smoke gradually accumulate in the tubes and air sacs of the lungs. This causes a gradual change in the lung tissue’s normal cells. Eventually these af-fected cells may reproduce new cells that are differ-ent from the original ones. The new, cancerous cells produce more cancerous cells that eventually kill off the normal cell tissue. The result is the growth of a malignant tumor that invades the lung and spreads to other parts of the body.
Risk factors for adolescents becoming addicted to smoking include lack of parental attention and support, having friends who smoke, and disinterest in education and school (Tucker, Ellickson, & Klein, 2003).
Significant Issues and Life EventsCertain significant experiences and life events tend to characterize adolescence and young adulthood. Some issues are of special concern to people in this age group. Several of these issues have been selected for discussion here. They were chosen on the basis of their relevance to and impact on the physical well-being of young people. Because adolescence is a period of sexual development, sexuality will be emphasized. The issues include sexual activity in adolescence, unplanned pregnancy, teenage father-hood, motivation for pregnancy, sex education, sexually transmitted infections, and contraception. Highlight 6.1 discusses young people’s experience with masturbation.
Ethical Questions 6.2
EP 1
To what extent should efforts be made to make Joe a productive member of society? Whose responsibility is it to help Joe? His parents’? The community’s? His school’s? To what extent is a 13-year-old like Joe responsible for improving his own behavior?
Use of TobaccoSubject to extreme peer pressure, adolescents find it easy to begin smoking, but very hard to quit. As with alcohol and other substance use, the positive news is that adolescent cigarette smoking, although still a serious problem, continues to be on the decline after peaking in 1996 and 1997 (Johnston, O’Malley, Bachman, & Schulenberg, 2012). Santrock (2016) reports:
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 9 3
HIGHLIGHT 6.1
masturbationMasturbation refers to self-stimulation of the genitals that causes sexual arousal. It appears that masturbation begins fairly early. By the time they reach age 19, the end of adolescence, 86 percent of all males and about two-thirds of all females have masturbated (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Some data indicate that adolescents are beginning to masturbate earlier than they have in the past (Bancroft, Herbenick, & Reynolds, 2003; Hyde & DeLamater, 2014).
Boys are more likely to masturbate than girls (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Laumann et al., 1994; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). Such gender differences may be related to sex roles and sexual expectations of men and women. Our society expects men to be sexual—and sexual athletes at that. Additionally, it may be possible that many women take longer to become comfortable with their own sexuality.
Greenberg et al. (2014) describe the masturbation process:
Males masturbate by stroking the shaft of the penis, often stimulated by erotic literature, films, or the internet. Some men use gadgets to assist them. Artificial vaginas, furlike clothes, inflatable dolls, and other devices have been reported as masturbatory aids by some men.
Women masturbate by rubbing the vulva [the female’s external genitals]—in particular, the clitoris—or inserting an object (a finger, a dildo, a banana, or a similarly shaped object) into the vagina. There are, of course, many variations on this theme, and the use of a vibrator to stimulate the vulva, cream to decrease friction on the area rubbed, pillows or other soft objects to rub the genitals against, and squeezing together of the thighs are all common adjuncts to the standard masturbatory techniques. (pp. 505–506)
Kelly (2008) describes how adolescents talk about masturbation:
Adolescent boys have tended to discuss masturbation among themselves—often in a joking way—more than adolescent girls. Consequently, more slang terms have evolved to describe male masturbation (jerk off, jack off, whack off, beat off, beat the meat) than for female masturbation (rubbing off, rolling the pill, fingering). (p. 153)
Other terms for female masturbation include “flick your Bic” and “itch the ditch.” Additional terms for male masturbation are “bop your bologna,” “wax the cucumber,” “burp the worm,” “play the piccolo solo,” “choke the chicken,” and “tickle the pickle.”
It’s important to address the issue of masturbation. As we’ve already established, it is very common among adolescents. However, it is also looked down on. The numerous slang terms used to describe it are very uncomplimentary. Perhaps the traditional negative attitude about masturbation can best be expressed by the statements of H. R. Stout in the 1885 edition of Our Family Physician:
When the evil has been pursued for several years, there will be an irritable condition of the system; sudden flushes of heat over the face; the countenance becomes pale and clammy; the eyes have a dull, sheepish look; the hair becomes dry and split at the ends; sometimes there is pain over the region of the heart; shortness of breath; palpitation of the heart (symptoms of dyspepsia show themselves); the sleep is disturbed; there is constipation; cough; irritation of the throat; finally the whole man becomes a wreck, physically, morally, and mentally. (p. 333)
After such a tirade, it would be a wonder if a person would dare to masturbate. This presents quite a contradiction and a source of confusion for adolescents. They are actually participating in the activity of masturbation. Yet there is some tendency for it to be considered an unappealing and even disgusting, behavior. Although attitudes are more positive than they have been historically, negative feelings can include anxiety, defensiveness, embarrassment, and guilt (Greenberg’ et al., 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2014).
Adolescents need to understand that masturbation is not abnormal or harmful. In a period of their lives when they are coping with many physical changes and new life situations, they do not need to be burdened with unnecessary confusion and even guilt. Masturbation is a normal means of relieving sexual tension and other stress, allowing a means of self-discovery, learning to control sexual needs and impulses, and fighting isolation and loneliness. Masturbation is even a prescribed means of treatment for sexual dysfunction. Women with orgasmic dysfunctions (i.e., the inability to experience orgasms) are counseled to use masturbation. This helps them overcome anxiety and understand their sexual responses. This information can later be transferred to a partner.
Another trend from the 1950s to 1970s was having sexual intercourse at younger and younger ages across many ethnic groups (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Today, the average age for first intercourse for females is 17.2 and for males 16.8 (Kinsey Institute, 2015).
There are a range of reasons why adolescents have sexual intercourse (Rathus et al., 2014).
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2 94 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 4 Describe Sexual Activity in AdolescenceA major trend characterizing adolescent sexual ac-tivity from the 1950s to the 1970s was a dramatic increase in teenagers having intercourse (Crooks & Baur, 2014). This was more true for boys than girls. Today, 25 percent of males and 26 percent of females have had sexual intercourse by age 15; 69 percent of males and 77 percent of females have had sexual in-tercourse by age 19 (Kinsey Institute, 2010).
Many adolescents, especially young men, are re-sponding to the surge of hormones their bodies are experiencing. Many men and women say they have intercourse because they’re curious about it or be-cause they’re simply ready for it. Showing love and affection is yet another reason for sexual intercourse.
Spotlight 6.2 discusses some racial and other dif-ferences in adolescent sexual activity.
Unplanned Pregnancy in AdolescenceThe United States has one of the highest, if not the highest, rates of teenage pregnancy among Western industrialized nations (Akers, Holland, & Bost, 2011; Crooks & Baur, 2014). For example, “the U.S. birth rate for female teens was 42.5 births per 1,000” while in Canada it was 13, Germany 10, and Italy 7 per 1,000 (Carroll, 2013, p. 194). In one year, 750,000 teenagers, or about 7 percent of young women under age 20, become pregnant (Guttmacher Institute, 2013d). Most of these pregnancies are unintended (Downs, Moore, & McFadden, 2009; Guttmacher Institute, 2013d). About 26 percent of all pregnancies for young women age 15 to 19 are terminated by abortion; about 59 percent end in live births (with the remaining pregnancies resulting in miscarriages) (Guttmacher Institute, 2013d).
About 5 percent of children born to teenage mothers are placed for adoption (Downs et al., 2009). The birth rate for teens has been declin-ing almost continuously over the last 20 years, a l t h o u g h , a s we h ave e s t abl i s h e d , i t re m a i n s higher than that of most other developed nations (Office of Adolescent Health, 2016). Its decline p ro b ably i s a re s u l t o f s u c h f a c t o r s a s m o re effective and varied types of contraception and enhanced caution in avoiding sexually transmitted infections, especially HIV (Crosson-Tower, 2009, 2013). About 80 percent of teen mothers are single (Pfeiffer, 2009).
Racial and other Differences in adolescent sexual activityIn the United States, significantly different patterns of adolescent sexual intercourse exist among various racial groups. For example, African American teenagers are more likely to have sexual intercourse than are their white and Hispanic counterparts ( C a r ro l l , 2 0 1 3 ; C ro o k s & B a u r, 2 0 1 4 ) . T h e ave rag e ag e fo r A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n
youths to have sexual intercourse is 15.8, for whites 16.6, for Hispanics 17, and for Asian Americans 18.1 (Kinsey Institute, 2010).
Differences in rates of sexual activity may relate more to poverty than to race or ethnicity (Crooks & Baur,
2014). African American and Hispanic youth often live in less affluent environments than their white counterparts. It’s been found that African American adolescents raised in affluent homes are more likely to abstain from sexual relationships than those raised in poorer environments (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Kissinger, Trim, Williams, Mielke, Koporc, & Brosn, 1997; Murry, 1996). Other variables associated with earlier intercourse include lack of closeness w i t h p a r e n t s a n d l a c k o f p a r e n t a l s u p e r v i s i o n a n d involvement (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Rathus et al., 2014; Welch, 2011).
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 6.2
EP 2aEP 2c
Ethical Questions 6.3
EP 1
At what age do people have the right to have sexual intercourse? What are the reasons for your answer?
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 95
As few babies are placed for formal adoption, the vast majority of babies born to single teens re-main at home with their young mothers. This places these young women in a very different situation than that of most of their peers. Adolescence and young adulthood are the usual time of life for meeting and socializing with friends, dating, possibly selecting a mate, obtaining an education, and making a career choice. The additional responsibility of motherhood poses serious restrictions on the amount of freedom and time available to do these other things. Addi-tionally, such young women are most often ill-pre-pared for motherhood. They are usually in the midst of establishing their own identities and learning to care for themselves.
Teen pregnancy has a number of other strikingly negative consequences. First, such pregnancies are marked by increased physical risks, both to the child and to the mother (Crooks & Baur, 2014; March of Dimes, 2012). Such problems include prolonged la-bor, anemia, toxemia, hemorrhaging, miscarriage, and, in the extreme, the pregnant teen’s death. The babies have a much greater chance either of being premature or of having a lower-than-normal birth weight (March of Dimes Foundation, 2012). A re-lated finding concerning maternal and child health is that many teenage mothers are poverty-stricken and receive very little prenatal health care (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). This con-tributes to the health risks of the mothers and their babies.
Other, longer-term research indicates that nega-tive effects continue long after the baby’s birth. Teen mothers are much less likely to finish high school than their peers who are not mothers (Downs et al., 2009). Adolescent mothers are often poor and de-pendent on social services (Crooks & Baur, 2014; March of Dimes, 2012). Later in life, they are more likely than their peers without children to be unem-ployed or underemployed (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Teen mothers also may have poorer parenting skills (Crooks & Baur, 2011; Klein and the Committee on Adolescence, 2005). Thus, the added stress and responsibility of motherhood tend to take a toll on teen mothers. Raising a child demands time, energy, and attention. Time taken to care for a baby must be subtracted from the time available for school and recreational activities. There are potentially serious impacts on the mental health and daily functioning of young mothers.
The children themselves are more likely not only to have a low birth weight, but also a higher mor-tality rate (March of Dimes Foundation, 2012). Long-term studies also reveal negative effects on the children of teen mothers. As these children mature, they tend to have more emotional, intellectual, and physical problems than do their counterparts born to adult mothers (Crooks & Baur, 2011; Downs et al., 2009; Rathus, Nevid, & Fichner-Rathus, 2011).
The consequences of teenage parenthood are emphasized here to provide a realistic perspective on teen pregnancy. Teenagers need to be at least in-tellectually aware of the impacts of motherhood. They need this information in order to make more realistic decisions for themselves concerning their sexual activity and their use of contraception. The other reason to focus on the consequences of teen-age pregnancy concerns helping young mothers who have already had their babies. Social workers need to understand the problems of teenage parenthood. This is needed to help young mothers realistically appraise their situations, make decisions about what to do for themselves, and get involved with the sup-portive services they need.
On a more positive note, Klein and the Commit-tee on Adolescence (2005) report:
Research suggests that long-term negative social outcomes are not inevitable. Several long-term follow-up studies indicate that two decades after giving birth, most former adolescent mothers are not welfare-dependent; many have completed high school, have secured regular employment, and do not have large families. Comprehensive adolescent pregnancy programs seem to contribute to good outcomes, as do home-visitation programs designed to promote good child health outcomes, (p. 6)
Teenage FathersVariables making a person more likely to become a teen father include living in an inner city, doing poorly in school, being poor, and being involved in delinquent acts (Klein and the Committee on Ado-lescence, 2005; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). Yarber and Sayad (2016) comment on the situation facing ado-lescent fathers:
Adolescent fathers typically remain physically o r p s ych o l o g i c a l ly i nvo l ve d t h ro u g h o u t t h e pregnancy and for at least some time after the
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2 96 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
birth. It is usually difficult for teenage fathers to contribute much to the support of their children, although most express the intention of doing so during the pregnancy. Most have a lower income, less education, and more children than men who postpone having children until age 20 or older. They may feel overwhelmed by the responsibility and may doubt their ability to be good providers. Though many teenage fathers are the sons of absent fathers, most do want to learn to be fathers. Teen fathers are a seriously neglected group who face many hardships. Policies and interventions directed at reducing teen fatherhood will have to take into consideration the many factors that influence it and focus efforts throughout the life cycle. (p.171)
Highlight 6.2 illustrates the potential effects of teenage fatherhood.
Why Do Teens Get Pregnant?An adolescent who is sexually active has a 90 percent chance of becoming pregnant in one year of un-protected intercourse (Guttmacher Institute, 2011). Adolescents often do not use contraception consci-entiously and frequently don’t use it at all (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Ramus et al., 2014). Many adolescents fail to use contraception the first few times they have sex (Crooks & Baur, 2014).
This is especially true for younger adolescents (Rathus et al., 2014). Note that contraceptive use by adolescents has improved over the past decades.
In 1982, only 48 percent of females who used contraceptives the first time they had sex, whereas from 2011 to 2103, 79 percent used some type of contraception, with the condom being the most common method (Guttmacher Institute, 2016).
Portrait of a Single FatherGary didn’t know what to do. Linda had just ruined his day and probably his life. She had just told him that she was pregnant. How could this happen? What could he do?
Gary, a 17-year-old high school sophomore, had never done very well in school and had even flunked sixth grade once. Ever since then, he’d been taking special ed classes and was just barely squeaking by.
He had always considered himself a freak. He liked to do a lot of drugs—that is, whenever he had the money to get them. He also liked to listen to booming hip-hop and was intimately familiar with radio station WROK’s top-10 hits. His uniform included well-patched blue jeans, construction-worker boots, and 18-inch-long, somewhat scraggly, greasy hair.
Beneath this exterior, Gary was an extremely sensitive person. He really cared about other people, although sometimes he had trouble showing it. This thing about Linda and a baby had really shaken him up. He really loved Linda. In fact, she was the best thing that had ever happened to him. She actually cared about him. It seemed like nobody had ever done that before. Gary really didn’t have much self-confidence. The fact that Linda cared simply amazed him.
Gary lived in Chicago with his mother and younger sister, Hillary, age 11. He cared about Hillary, but they really didn’t have much in common. There was too much of an age difference. Sometimes they stuck up for each other, though, when their mother went out with some new boyfriend and came home drunk. That happened pretty often. His mother
was really something else. It seemed like she loved him, but she had always had a horrible problem accepting responsibility. A lot of times he felt like he had to take care of her, instead of vice versa. No, she wasn’t one to depend on much.
Another problem was that they were poor. He could never remember having a lot of things. For years he had wanted to learn how to play the guitar. He picked one up two years ago at a neighborhood auction, but it never really sounded like much. The other problem, of course, was that he felt he had absolutely no talent. He often thought the guitar looked good, though, sitting on an old peach crate in his basement room, his place of retreat.
Sometimes Gary thought about his father out in Utah. Although he had only seen him once in the last 10 years, he talked to him sometimes on the phone on holidays. His big dream was to go out and live with his dad and his dad’s new family. Gary liked nature and camping. He thought that Utah would be the perfect place to go to and get away. In his more somber moments, he realized this was only a dream. His dad was pleasant enough on the phone, but he knew he really didn’t care. It was fun to think about sometimes though. Sometimes when he got a better batch of drugs, he’d just sit in his room and think. He dreamed of all the wonderful things he’d do in Utah. That’s what it was, though, just a dream.
Gary dreamed a lot. He didn’t have much hope for the future. He thought that was pretty hopeless. One of his teachers asked him once if he ever thought about going
HIGHLIGHT 6.2
(continued)
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 9 7
Still, that leaves a significant percentage of teens who use no contraceptive method during sexual i n t e rc o u r s e. Why d o m a ny t e e n s f a i l t o u s e adequate contraception?
Some teens are embarrassed to find and purchase contraceptive apparatus or are concerned about confi-dentiality (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Others may feel un-comfortable talking to partners about sexual matters or lack assertiveness to do so. For instance, a young woman may find it difficult to talk to a partner about such intimate issues as putting on a condom or placing a diaphragm in her vagina. Depending on the informa-tion to which they’ve had access, adolescents may not have adequate knowledge about contraceptive meth-odology and its effectiveness (Crooks & Baur, 2014).
Other adolescents adhere to erroneous myths (Crooks & Baur, 2011; Rathus et al., 2011). For in-stance, many teens inaccurately believe that they are not old enough to conceive, that “the first time” doesn’t count, that they must have intercourse much more frequently than they do in order to conceive, that it is perfectly safe to have sex during certain
times of the month, and that withdrawal before ejac-ulation is an effective birth control method. Some young women may illogically feel that if they ignore the issue of potential pregnancy, it will cease to exist. If they don’t think about their own sexual activity, then they don’t have to worry about it.
There are yet other reasons why teens may not use birth control. They might not like the bother of us-ing contraception. They might feel sexual activity is more pleasurable without it. They may worry that parents will find out. They may feel invulnerable to pregnancy, that it’s something that only happens to other people. Finally, they may simply think that they want to get pregnant.
LO 5 Assess Sex Education and EmpowermentA heated controversy often develops over the issue of providing teens with information about sex. The fear is that giving adolescents information about
to college. College, hah! How could he ever afford to go to college? He couldn’t even afford a Super Big Super Store guitar. The other problem was how poorly he always did in school. He stopped really studying years ago. Now he was so far behind he knew he’d never catch up. He didn’t like to think much about the future. There was no future in it.
But now Gary’s problem was Linda—Linda and the baby. It’s funny how he already thought of it as a baby even though it wasn’t born yet. He liked the thought of having something that was really his. He liked Linda, too, and he didn’t want to lose her. She was crying when she told him she was pregnant. He bet she’d like it if they lived together, or maybe even got married. Then he could move out of his mother’s apartment. He could be free and on his own. He could drop out of school. School wasn’t much anyhow. Maybe he could get that second-shift job slinging burgers at the local hamburger shack. That wouldn’t be too bad. He could see his friends there. They could have a good time.
Yeah, that’s what he’d do. He’d do a good thing for once in his life. He’d marry Linda and be a father. Maybe everything would be all right then. Maybe they’d all live happily ever after.
EpilogueGary and Linda did get married 10 months later. By then, Linda had given birth to a 6-pound, 8-ounce baby boy whom they named Billy. The problem was that things really didn’t get any better. They didn’t change much at all. Gary was still poor.
Now, however, he was poor but with adult responsibilities. He still couldn’t afford a guitar. He had to go to work at the hamburger shack every day at 5:00 p.m. just like he used to have to go to school every morning. There wasn’t much money for him and Linda to have any fun with. As a matter of fact, there wasn’t much money to do anything much at all. Their small apartment was pretty cramped. Sometimes the baby’s crying drove him almost crazy. He and Linda weren’t doing too well either. When they weren’t fighting, they weren’t talking. Things hadn’t changed much at all; he still didn’t have much hope for the future.
CommentaryThis case example isn’t meant to portray the thoughts of a typical teenage father. For example, Gary was very poor. In reality, teenage parents originate in all socioeconomic levels.
However, this example is intended to illustrate the lack of experience, and information adolescents often have available to them. Without information, it’s difficult to make insightful, well-founded decisions. A major job of a social worker is to help young people in a situation like this rationally think through the alternatives available to them. Potential services need to be talked about, and plans need to be made. Young people often need both support and suggestions regarding how to proceed. They need to examine their expectations about the future and make certain that they’re being realistic.
HIGHLIGHT 6.2 (continued)
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2 9 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
sexuality will encourage them to start experiment-ing sexually. An underlying assumption is that ado-lescents won’t think about sex or be interested in it unless someone around them brings up the subject.
Two fallacies can be pointed out in this approach. First, it assumes that adolescents have little or no access to sexual information other than that which adults choose to give. In reality, most teenagers say they’ve learned the most about sex from the media and their friends (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017)
Obviously, adolescents are functioning within a complex environment that exposes them to many new ideas. They are not locked up in a sterile cage. The media place tremendous emphasis on sexuality and sexual behavior. Television, the internet, maga-zines, newspapers, and books are filled with sexual episodes and anecdotes. Adolescents indeed have nu-merous exposures to the concept of sex.
A second fallacy is that adolescents will auto-matically try anything they hear about. If a parent tells a young person that some people are murder-ers, will the young person go out and try murdering someone? Of course not. Although adults, especially parents, might wish they had such control over ado-lescents, they do not.
Perhaps an analogy concerning sex education could be made to the situation of buying a used Ford SUV. An analogous assumption would be that it would be better to have no information about how the van works before buying it and hope for the best. This is ludicrous. In this situation, you would want as much information as possible to make the best de-cision about whether or not to buy the van. It would be wise to take the van to a mechanic to have it thor-oughly evaluated. You would both need and want information. People, including adolescents, need as much information as possible in order to make re-sponsible decisions about their own sexual behavior and avoid ignorant mistakes. It is illogical to deprive them of information and have them act on the basis of hearsay and chance.
One primary source of information about sex is friends; yet friends probably don’t know much more about sex than they do. Information that is available from friends is likely to be vague and inaccurate. Just because adolescents use sexual terms does not mean they are very knowledgeable about sexuality.
Over half (55 percent) of teens in grades 7 to 12 have researched sexual information online when they had a question related to themselves or to
their friends; however, in one survey of relevant websites, 46 percent of those providing informa-tion about contraception and 35 percent of those dealing with abortion were inaccurate (Guttmacher Institute, 2012a).
Sex Education by ParentsAnother aspect of the sex education controversy is the idea that sex education should be provided by parents in the home. Among teenagers, 70 percent of males and 79 percent of females do talk to parents about sex; however, questions tend to fall within at least one of six categories (Guttmacher Institute, 2012a). These categories include saying no to sex, methods of contraception, how to get contracep-tion, how to use a condom, sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and how to avoid contracting an HIV infection. However, consider the potential ef-fectiveness of such sex education provided by par-ents (Guttmacher Institute, 2012a). First, teens may only talk to their parents about one of these issues, not all. Second, more girls talk to parents about sex than boys. Third, girls tend to focus on ways to “say no” and types of contraception. Fourth, parents may often provide “inaccurate” or “incomplete” information.
Consider also the many remaining children who receive no sex education in the home (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). There may be several reasons for this. Adolescents may feel uncomfortable talk-ing about such intimacy with parents, and vice versa. Many young people have extreme difficulty envisioning their parents and grandparents being involved in sexual scenarios. Similarly, parents of-ten don’t relish the picture of their children involved in such acts either. Parents may fear that by talking about it, they will encourage children to have sex, a fallacy we have already discussed. Parents may also fear their own ignorance. What if their children ask them questions they can’t answer? An implication of these concerns is that it is probably easier to avoid the issue altogether.
Public surveys in the United States and Canada consistently find that parents support sex educa-tion in the schools (Greenberg et al., 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). For example, one opinion poll conducted in the United States and Canada found that 93 percent of parents of junior high-age stu-dents and 91 percent of parents of high school-age
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Biological Development in Adolescence 2 9 9
students indicate that “it is very or somewhat impor-tant to have sexuality education as part of the school curriculum” (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2004; Sex Information and Education Council of the United States [SIECUS], 2007a; Weaver et al., 2002). This contrasts starkly with the 4 percent of parents of ju-nior high students and the 6 percent of parents of high school students who think sexuality education should not be part of the school curriculum (Sex Education in America, 2004; SIECUS, 2007a). It is interesting to note that when parents were asked about the sexual behavior of their own teenager, 83 percent believed that the teen had gone no further sexually than kissing (SIECUS, 2005i). To what extent do you think this is accurate?
Sex educators do not want to take the parents’ place in this sphere. Rather, they want to ensure that children have adequate and accurate information about sex. Many times parents are uncomfortable or embarrassed talking about sex with their children. One student shared her 8-year-old son’s reaction to her own discomfort in talking to him about sex. As she was trying to explain to him some of the basics of human reproduction, he put his hand on her arm and said, “It’s okay, Mom, I get the general idea.”
Current Policy and Sex Education ProgramsThe major focus of the current sex education debate is on the type of program that should be offered in schools. Most sex educators promote a comprehensive program providing a wide range of information to students. The opposite approach involves abstinence-only-until-marriage programs.
Abstinence-Only-Before-Marriage Sex Education ProgramsAbstinence-only programs discourage young peo-ple from engaging in any sexual behavior, exagger-ate the negative effects of sexual involvement, and frequently omit information on contraception or prevention of STIs (Carroll, 2013). Supporters of-ten say that this approach drives home the point to young people that there is no choice when it comes to nonmarital sexual activity—they simply should not do it.
The Bush administration strongly supported the development and operation of such programs (Stein, 2010). More than $1.5 billion in state and federal
support was made available for these programs over the past 30 years (Greenberg et al., 2014). The cur-rent Obama administration still made $55 million available in 2012 (Kiff, 2012). As of November 2013, 37 states require that information about abstinence be included; 25 of these states mandate that absti-nence be emphasized (Guttmacher Institute, 2013h). Nineteen states mandate that sex education programs stress the significance of engaging in sexual activity only within the context of marriage (Guttmacher Institute, 2013h). (Note that the terms “abstinence-only” and “abstinence-only-before-marriage” are used interchangeably here.) The Trump administration has indicated plans to return to a more conservative approach to sex education programming.
Do abstinence-only programs work? A range of studies indicate that they do not work. Research indicates that abstinence-only-before-marriage programs failed to fulfill their sole purpose—namely, increasing the rates of sexual abstinence (Carroll, 2013; Kirby, 2007; SIECUS, 2007b, 2008; Week, 2008). One analysis studied the effects of involvement in abstinence-only programs on teenagers who took virginity pledges compared with matched teens who took no such pledges (Rosenbaum, 2009). She found that teenagers who took the pledge did not delay sexual involvement any more than did their nonpledging peers, were less likely to use contraception, were less likely to get tested for STIs, and were more likely to go untreated for such a disease for longer periods if they did contract one (Rosenbaum, 2009). Other research found that participants in abstinence-only-before-marriage programs had the same rate of STIs as their peers who did not participate in these programs (Bearman & Bruckner, 2005; SIECUS, 2005m, 2007b). Yet other research found that participation in abstinence-only programs produced no significant effects in sexual behav-ior generally (Kirby, 2007; Trenholm, Devaney, Fortson, Quay, Wheeler, & Clark, 2007).
The following is an example of a virginity pledge:
I, _______, promise to abstain from sex until my wedding night. I want to reserve my sexual powers to give life and love for my future spouse and marriage. I will respect my gift of sexuality by keeping my mind and thoughts pure as I prepare for my true love. (Sex Respect, Parent Guide, p. 13, cited in SIECUS, 2005d)
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3 0 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
According to a report sponsored by the U.S. House of Representatives, there are at least five criti-cisms of abstinence-only programs (Waxman, 2004):
1. Abstinence-only curricula contain false informa-tion about the effectiveness of contraceptives. Many curricula misrepresent the effectiveness of condoms in preventing sexually transmitted dis-eases and pregnancy. One curriculum says that “the popular claim that ‘condoms help prevent the spread of STDs,’ is not supported by the data”; another states that “in heterosexual sex, condoms fail to prevent HIV approximately 31% of the time”; and another teaches that a preg-nancy occurs one out of every seven times that couples use condoms. These erroneous statements are presented as proven scientific facts. (p. i)
2. Abstinence-only curricula contain false informa-tion about the risks of abortion. One curricu-lum states that 5 percent to 10 percent of women who have legal abortions will become sterile; that “premature birth, a major cause of mental re-tardation, is increased following the abortion of a first pregnancy”; and that “tubal and cervical pregnancies are increased following abortions.” In fact, these risks do not rise after the procedure used in most abortions in the United States. (p. i)
3. Abstinence-only curricula blur religion and science. Many of the curricula present as scientific fact the religious view that life begins at conception. For ex-ample, one lesson states: “Conception, also known as fertilization, occurs when one sperm unites with one egg in the upper third of the fallopian tube. This is when life begins.” Another curriculum calls a 43-day-old fetus a “thinking person.” (pp. i–ii)
4. Abstinence-only curricula treat stereotypes about girls and boys as scientific fact. One curriculum teaches that women need “financial support,” while men need “admiration.” Another instructs: “Women gauge their happiness and judge their success on their relationships. Men’s happiness and success hinge on their accomplishments.” (p. ii)
5. Abstinence-only curricula contain scientific er-rors. In numerous instances, the abstinence-only curricula teach erroneous scientific information. One curriculum incorrectly lists exposure to sweat and tears as risk factors for HIV transmis-sion. Another curriculum states that “twenty-four chromosomes from the mother and twenty-four chromosomes from the father join to create this new individual”; the correct number is 23. (p. ii)
There is one additional criticism of abstinence-only curricula. Emphasizing how important it is to wait for sexual interaction until heterosexual marriage tends to alienate lesbian and gay youth even more than they already are (SIECUS, 2005j, 2008). Gay marriage remains a highly controversial issue. Lesbian and gay students are already at great risk of being threatened or harassed. More than twice as many lesbian and gay high school students (19%) as heterosexual students (8%) are threat-ened or harmed with a weapon (SIECUS, 2005j). Ninety-two percent of lesbian and gay students “in middle and high school report that they fre-quently or often hear homophobic remarks, such as ‘faggot,’ ‘dyke,’ or the expression ‘that’s so gay’ from their peers. Almost one in five of these stu-dents heard homophobic remarks from faculty or staff at their school” (SIECUS, 2005j).
Comprehensive Sex Education ProgramsThe Obama administration has treated the concept of sex education quite differently than the Bush admin-istration. The Affordable Care Act of 2010 includes a program called the Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP); PREP makes $75 million available annually for comprehensive sex education programs that ensure the provision of medically accurate infor-mation (Greenberg et al., 2014). With proposed changes to/elimination of the Affordable Care Act by the Trump administration, this program could be at risk.
In contrast to abstinence-only programs, compre-hensive sexuality education empowers young people by teaching them “about both abstinence and ways to protect themselves from STDs, HIV, and unin-tended pregnancy” (SIECUS, 2005e). Note that most Americans support the provision of sex edu-cation that includes content on abstinence in addi-tion to information about contraception and STIs (Carroll, 2013). Thus, a range of concepts are included in comprehensive sex education programs. These include abstinence, having the right to say no to a sexual encounter, the value of good communica-tion, and the importance of taking responsibility for one’s own behavior. Some research found that teenag-ers who received information about both abstinence and contraception were more likely to use condoms, were more likely to delay their first experience with sexual intercourse, and established “healthier” rela-tionships with partners (Guttmacher Institute, 2012a; Wind, 2012).
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Biological Development in Adolescence 3 01
The Sex Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) is an organization dedicated to providing comprehensive, effective sex education (it can be accessed at www.siecus.org). SIECUS (2004, 2011) recommends that a comprehensive sex educa-tion program should have the following four goals:
1. Information. Sexuality education seeks to pro-vide accurate information about human sexuality including growth and development, human re-production, anatomy, physiology, masturbation,
family life, pregnancy, childbirth, parenthood, sexual response, sexual orientation, gender iden-tity, contraception, abortion, sexual abuse, HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases.
2. Attitudes, values, and insights. Sexuality education seeks to provide an opportunity for young people to question, explore, and assess their own and their community’s attitudes about society, gender, and sexuality. This can help young people understand their family’s values, develop their own values,
initiating Kissing and sexual intimacyA faculty member we know occasionally asks students in some of his classes the following question: “Assume you are out on your first or second date with someone you find very attractive. You really desire to kiss and hug this person. What would you do to seek to initiate this activity?”
Many students respond that they would use body language to convey their interest. To this response I usually ask “Tell me, specifically, what types of body language would you use?” Students usually are unable to give a specific answer to this question.
Think about your past romantic experiences. How did you, or the person you were with, convey an interest in kissing and hugging?
Body language sends ambiguous messages. We may misread the body language of someone. Sadly, romantic movies and soap operas usually model that participants in romantic encounters use body language to determine the other person’s interests in a romantic relationship.
If someone does not want to be kissed by you, and you kiss them, you may see physical reactions of that person rejecting you—and in rare cases even slapping you in the face. (Some sexual harassment complaints are now being filed over unwanted kissing.)
Why is it that our society socializes us to convey romantic interests through body language?
Why is it that traditionally males (in male-female relationships) are expected to initiate an interest in hugging and kissing? In our contemporary society that advocates equality between the sexes, should not females have the same right to initiate hugging and kissing (in male-female relationships)?
Michael J. Domitrz in May I Kiss You? makes a strong case that we would be better off by using verbal communication to seek to convey our interest in hugging and kissing a person we are highly attracted to.a Would not saying something like the following be more constructive and respectful than seeking to use body language? “I am very attracted to you. I’d really like to give you a kiss. Would that be OK with you?”
A second question that the above faculty member sometimes asks students is: “Assume you have been dating someone you are highly attracted to for quite a length of time. You have kissed and hugged this person a number of times, but yet have not become sexually intimate. Also assume you desire to become sexually intimate. What would you do to seek to initiate this activity?”
Again, many students respond that they would convey this message through body language. (Again, movies and soap operas often convey that this is the best way of sending such a message.) Sadly, the high number of date rapes clearly document that body language (along with physical force) is not the most constructive or respectful way of conveying such a message.
Often, female students respond to this question by saying it is “up to the male” to initiate such moves. Should not females in our society have the same rights as men in this area?
Domitrz in May I Kiss You? b again makes a strong case that your interest in initiating sexual intimacy with someone is best conveyed, and most respectfully conveyed, by a verbal communication, such as the following: “I find you highly attractive. I really desire to become intimate with you. Could you tell me your thoughts about this?” Such a question shows your respect for the other person, and it conveys your feelings with much greater clarity than body language. (If you use body language and start groping someone, aren’t you sending confusing, and perhaps alarming messages—which even makes you vulnerable to a sexual assault charge?)
Another advantage of using verbal communication is that it enhances the chances that you (and the person you are with) will have an honest discussion about the limits and types of sexual intimacy (such as oral sex being the type and limit) that are desired. Verbal communication also can facilitate a discussion of using contraceptives if sexual intercourse is agreed upon.
aMichael J. Domitrz, May I Kiss You? (Greenfield, WI: Awareness Publications, 2003).bIbid.
HIGHLIGHT 6.3
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3 0 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
improve critical-thinking skills, increase self-esteem and self-efficacy [effectiveness], and develop insights concerning relationships with family members, indi-viduals of all genders, sexual partners, and society at large. Sexuality education can help young people understand their obligations and responsibilities to their families and society.
3. Relationships and interpersonal skills. Sexuality education seeks to help young people develop in-terpersonal skills, including communication, deci-sion making, assertiveness, and peer refusal skills, as well as the ability to create reciprocal and satis-fying relationships. Sexuality education programs should prepare students to understand sexuality effectively and creatively in adult roles. This in-cludes helping young people develop the capacity for caring, supportive, non-coercive, and mutu-ally pleasurable intimate and sexual relationships.
4. Responsibility. Sexuality education seeks to help young people exercise responsibility regarding sexual relationships by addressing such issues as abstinence, how to resist pressures to become in-volved in unwanted or early sexual intercourse, and the use of contraception and other sexual health measures. (2004, p. 19)
Research has determined that effective sex educa-tion programs that delay first intercourse reduce the
frequency of intercourse, decrease the number of sexual partners, and increase contraceptive use have seven characteristics (Kirby, 2001, 2007; Kirby et al., 1994; SIECUS, 2005c; United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS, 1997). First, they focus on decreasing spe-cific risk-taking behavior that could potentially lead to pregnancy or STDs. Second, they’re based on so-cial learning theory that emphasizes assuming respon-sibility for behavior, recognizing consequences, and teaching effective strategies to protect oneself, thereby enhancing motivation to adopt those behaviors. Third, they provide vital, practical, and accurate information about the risks of sexual behavior, how to avoid risks, and how to protect oneself from pregnancy and STDs. Fourth, they address how the media encourage young people to become involved in sexual behavior and help them think about how to respond. Fifth, they provide examples of and opportunities to practice “commu-nication, negotiation, and refusal skills” (Greenberg et al., 2014, p. 423). Sixth, such programs reinforce values that address the worth of postponing sexual activity and avoiding risky sexual behavior. Seventh, they use interactive teaching approaches to engage participants and help them personalize what they learn (e.g., using small-group discussions and roleplaying).
Comprehensive sex education programs employ-ing these principles have been endorsed by the Amer-ican Medical Association, the American Academy
Comprehensive sex education programs help adolescents make responsible decisions about romantic involvement and sexual behavior.
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Biological Development in Adolescence 3 0 3
of Pediatrics, the American Psychological Associa-tion, the American Public Health Association, the Institute of Medicine, and the American Foundation for AIDS Research (Guttmacher Institute, 2012a; SIECUS, 2010).
Spotlight 6.3 discusses empowerment through sex education for Native Americans.
LO 6 Identify Sexually Transmitted InfectionsSexually transmitted infections (STIs), or sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), are infections that people can contract through sexual relations. They include some conditions that can also be transmitted in other ways not involving sexual contact. In the past, STIs were referred to as venereal diseases (VD).
We’ve already established that young people are choosing to become sexually active earlier than ever. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) (2015)
empowerment through sex education for native americansGoodman (1998) cautions that most sex education curricula espouse a limited, unilateral view of the world, thereby failing to adequately serve people of color. She describes a case study focusing on a small community in the Cherokee Nation where an empower ment model proposed by Freire (1970, 1985) was used to develop sex education curricula.
Freire suggests that any teaching should occur within a context where community members are active participants in developing and approving content. The process involves three phases. First, developers of curricula should explore the community’s needs by actively communicating with residents and observing interaction, expectations, and activities. Second, developers should talk with community members about what principles and values preside over community customs and behavior, thereby identifying recommendations for change. During this phase, community members should be actively recruited to lead discussions and provide input. Third, Freire proposes taking action to solve identified problems.
This model was applied to developing a sex education curriculum in a small Cherokee community of about 200 families in Oklahoma. Goodman (1998) describes the community as consisting of families living in subsidized housing “built on both sides of a state highway” in addition to “two small gas stations/convenience stores, a school, and a church. The community has a reputation for being violent and is located in a county that rumor says has the most unsolved murders of any county in the United States. The county is poor and has one of the highest teen pregnancy rates” in the state (p. 137).
The participatory research process included conducting discussion groups, interviews, and surveys throughout the Cherokee Nation in addition to holding various meetings and seminars. Identified issues during phase 1 were the huge gap between the community’s needs for education about healthy sexual decision making and what was actually being done to meet these needs; school issues including prejudice and discrimination; teen pregnancy; the absence of men in many families’ lives; and the influence of drugs on sexual behavior. Phase 2 involved focusing discussion on each issue and reviewing alternatives to address it.
Phase 3 entailed putting community recommendations into action. After-school sex education training sessions were held for teachers. Sex education programs and content can be adapted to meet the special requirements for information and respond to cultural issues relevant to young Native Americans (Planned Parenthood, 2007). A special Saturday program was provided for male Cherokee youth aged 9 to 13 stressing topics such as “talking about tough issues, making good sexual decisions, AIDS, and feeling proud to be Indian” (Goodman, 1998, p. 140). Other project results included improving community members’ knowledge about the access to the appropriate social services, developing a video, initiating an Alateen program,* and acquiring access to a tribal substance abuse counselor for individual assessments.
*Alateen is an organization providing support for teenage children living in a family with an alcoholic. As in Al-Anon, members meet regularly to discuss the facts about alcoholism, provide mutual support and coping suggestions, improve personal attitudes, and reduce family tension.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 6.3
EP 2aEP 2c
Ethical Questions 6.4
EP 1
What type of sex education do you support? What specific content should and should not be taught?
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3 0 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
estimates that 20 million new cases of STIs develop every year. Half of these involve people aged 15–24; it is estimated that 110 million people nationally are living with an STI (CDC, 2015). It’s critical that people have as much information as possible to make responsible decisions both for themselves and for their partners, even when they’re very young. People need information about what the common STIs are, how they are transmitted, their effects, if and how they can be cured, and, perhaps most important, how they can be prevented. Discussion here will focus on information about some of the most common STIs. Bacterial infections include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and syphilis. Infections caused by other organisms include pubic lice, sca-bies, and trichomoniasis. Viral infections include genital herpes (herpes simplex viruses 1 [HSV-1] and 2 [HSV-2]), and human papillomavirus (HPV) (sometimes resulting in “genital warts”). HIV/AIDS will be mentioned briefly here, but discussed in greater detail in Chapter 10.
ChlamydiaChlamydia is the most commonly reported bacte-rial STI in the United States (CDC, 2015; Crooks & Baur, 2014). A reported 1,441,789 individuals in the United States have chlamydia, which is caused by a bacterium called Chlamydia trachomatis (CDC, 2015). This bacterium causing chlamydia in women can cause nongonococcal urethritis (NGU), also called nonspecific urethritis (NSU), in men. NGU is “any inflammation of the urethra that is not caused by gonorrhea” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 441). (NGU can also be caused by other microscopic organisms.) Chlamydia trachomatis is transmitted via vaginal, oral, or anal sexual contact.
A majority of women and about 50 percent of men experience no symptoms after infection by Chlamydia trachomatis (CDC, 2008a; Crooks & Baur, 2014). In the event women do have symp-toms, the most common involve one of two condi-tions. First, there may be an infection of the lower reproductive tract—specifically, irritation of the urethra or a cervical infection that results in vaginal discharge or burning sensations during urination. Second, women may get pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), an infection in the uterus, the fallopian tubes, and possibly the ovaries that result in a buildup of scar tissue. Untreated or consecutive cases of PID
can result in pelvic pain and possibly sterility. PID occurs in 10 to 15 percent of women with untreated chlamydia (CDC, 2011b).
A male’s symptoms may include a discharge from his penis or burning sensations during urination. Men may also develop epididymitis, an infection of the epididymis (“the structure along the back of each testis in which sperm maturation occurs”) (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. G-3). If a man or woman contracts chlamydia in the throat or rectum, he or she may ex-perience pain in those areas.
Diagnosis of a chlamydial infection includes labo-ratory tests examining urine or a specimen of infected cells. Treatment comprises antibiotics, usually azithro-mycin or doxycycline (CDC, 2011b). Chlamydial infections can easily be passed back and forth between sexual partners even when one of the partners has been cured. Therefore, infected people should avoid sexual intercourse until they’re sure they’re cured. People contracting chlamydial infections are supposed to refer all previous sexual partners for treatment.
GonorrheaIt is estimated that in the United States more than 829,000 people contract gonorrhea each year (CDC, 2015). Gonorrhea (also called “the clap” and “drip”) is caused by a bacterium “that can grow and multiply easily in the warm, moist areas of the reproductive tract” and other mucous membranes (CDC, 2011b). The infection is easily transmitted by various sexual contacts, including intercourse, oral stimulation of the genitals, and possibly even kissing. Gonorrhea can infect the vagina, uterus, or fallopian tubes in women, and the urethra, mouth, throat, eyes, and anus in both men and women, causing pain, dis-charge, or itching.
A woman has a 50 to 70 percent and a man a 20 percent chance of contracting gonorrhea by having intercourse with a contagious person just one time; however, a male’s chance of contracting gonorrhea increases sharply to 60 to 80 percent if he has vagi-nal intercourse four or more times with an infected partner (Greenberg et al., 2014). A man’s symptoms include a yellowish, pus-like discharge secreted from the opening at the tip of the penis. Urination is usually quite painful. Only about 5 to 10 percent of men experience no symptoms (Greenberg et al., 2014). Symptoms may first appear as early as two days or as late as a month after infection.
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Biological Development in Adolescence 3 0 5
Most women, on the other hand—as many as 80 percent—have no symptoms early on after contracting the disease (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Rathus et al., 2014). This is due to the fact that the infection most frequently invades the cervix (the narrow, necklike passage forming the lower end of the uterus). Thus, a woman is not as likely as a man either to notice the discharge or to experience pain. Unfortunately, without symptoms, a woman won’t know she has gonorrhea. If she doesn’t know she has it, she won’t seek treatment and therefore will continue to be contagious.
If unchecked, gonorrhea usually spreads from the cervix, up the uterus, and into the fallopian tubes. It then can cause pelvic inflammatory disease and pos-sibly sterility. Because men feel pain as a symptom, they are much more likely to seek treatment. Oth-erwise, for both genders, the organisms can move into other sexually related organs, causing pain and possibly fever. Sterility in men is possible, although it occurs infrequently. Other possible results of gon-orrhea include infection and the resulting inflamma-tion of organs such as the heart, brain, or joints.
Diagnosis of gonorrhea involves obtaining a sam-ple of the discharge and conducting laboratory tests. Treatment entails administering antibiotics. Note that increasingly resistant strains of gonorrhea are evolving throughout the world, making treatment increasingly more difficult (CDC, 2015). People re-main contagious to others until they are cured.
SyphilisThere are approximately 63,000 cases of syphilis an-nually in the United States (CDC, 2015). Although it is not as common as either gonorrhea or chlamydial infections, syphilis is much more deadly. Syphilis is transmitted during sexual intercourse through a mucous membrane, usually by means of the genitals, vagina, anus, rectum, mouth, or lips. Also, a fetus may become infected by its mother; results include being stillborn, experiencing developmental delays, having seizures, or dying soon after birth (CDC, 2015).
The symptoms of syphilis progress through four phases. The first is the primary stage. Most notable during this phase is the appearance of a round, crater-like sore, which, despite its very unpleasant appearance, is painless. The chancre, as this lesion is called, marks the spot where the bacteria initially penetrated the body. Most frequently, syphilis enters
the body through a mucous membrane, around the tip of the penis, in the vagina, or at the cervix. Syphilis can, however, also be contracted through a cut anywhere on the skin. The chancre usually ap-pears from 10 to 90 days (an average of 21 days) af-ter infection and disappears after three to six weeks (CDC, 2011b).
The secondary stage begins with lesions in mu-cous membranes and a rash that may occur almost any place on the body. The rash neither itches nor hurts. This stage usually begins as the chancre is healing or a few weeks after it vanishes (CDC, 2015). By this time, the bacteria have spread throughout the body. A number of other symptoms may character-ize the secondary stage, including sore throat, hair loss, headaches, weight loss, nausea, joint pains, and fever. Most of these symptoms could also character-ize a number of other illnesses, masking the fact that a person has syphilis. The individual might not seek treatment at all or seek it for some other illness.
Another aspect of the disease makes it difficult to pin down and diagnose. The time periods dur-ing which these generalized symptoms occur vary greatly and can be long. It’s difficult to relate the symptoms of a disease like syphilis to a time perhaps six months earlier when it was contracted.
The latent stage begins sometime after all second-ary stage symptoms have disappeared. No symptoms occur during this stage. The bacteria concentrate in some organ of the body such as the brain, spinal cord, or bones. After about one year in the latent stage, they are no longer contagious (Carroll, 2013). One exception is a pregnant woman, who may still pass the disease on to her child.
About 15 percent of the people who progress to the latent stage and remain untreated enter the final late stage of syphilis (CDC, 2015). During this phase, the bacteria viciously attack the organs where they’ve concentrated. The disease may cause serious damage to the heart, eyes, brain, spinal cord, diges-tive organs, liver, or endocrine glands. Even death may result.
For diagnosis, laboratory tests examining a speci-men of the chancre or blood tests are used. People with syphilis significantly increase their risk of contracting HIV. Penicillin or other antibiotics are common treatments that can be very effective if ad-ministered within a year after becoming infected. People who have had the disease longer require greater doses of drugs for a cure. Note that drugs
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3 0 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
when administered will kill the disease, but can’t re-pair organs that syphilis has already damaged.
Pubic LicePubic lice, or “crabs,” are tiny insects that cling to pu-bic hair and feed off the blood vessels in the skin of the pubic area. People become infected through direct contact. The primary symptom is itching, which can range from slight to extreme. A case of pubic lice can be diagnosed by visual observation of them and their eggs. Treatment involves applying Kwell, a prescription ointment or shampoo, to the affected areas for a period of 12 hours. Because pubic lice are highly contagious, all clothing, towels, and bedsheets coming into contact with the lice should be boiled or washed in very hot water.
ScabiesThe mite Sarcoptes scabiei causes scabies. People be-come infected through direct contact with the organ-ism. Symptoms include a red skin rash and severe itching. Diagnosis is through visual observation of the rash. Various creams are available for treatment. Like pubic lice, scabies are highly contagious, so all clothing, towels, and bedsheets coming into contact with them should be thoroughly cleaned.
TrichomoniasisAbout 3.7 million people are infected with trichomo-niasis in the United States (CDC, 2011). Caused by a single-celled protozoan parasite, it can be contracted through sexual intercourse or by genital-to-genital area contact. After infection, women usually experi-ence a vaginal discharge that is yellow-green in color. Men experience either no symptoms or mild burning in the urethra after urination.
Diagnosis requires a laboratory test. Trichomo-niasis is readily treated by prescription drugs such as metronidazole or tinidazole taken by mouth in a single dose. It is recommended that all sexual part-ners of the person with the disease be treated at the same time. Sexual intercourse should not resume until all symptoms have vanished. Trichomoniasis also makes people more susceptible to HIV infection (CDC, 2011; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
Genital HerpesAcross the nation, of people aged 14 to 49, 15.5 per-cent have genital herpes (CDC, 2014). Genital herpes
is caused by herpes simplex viruses type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). Most cases of genital herpes are of the HSV-2 type, which causes outbreaks of painful blisters that break open and become sores. HSV-1, traditionally causing fever blisters or cold sores of-ten found in and around the mouth, has only minor differences in its genetic code from HSV-2. Because of the increase in oral sex, HSV-1 has also often in-fected genital areas by mouth–genital contact. Either HSV-l or HSV-2 infecting the genitals is considered genital herpes. Genital herpes can also occur by touching fingers to infected areas and subsequently touching other receptive mucous membranes such as those in the genital area or in the mouth. We used to think that people were only contagious when they were broken out in sores. However, now we know that infected people can also transmit the disease to others when sores aren’t evident.
The first genital herpes outbreak usually occurs within two weeks of infection, although it may not happen for years (CDC, 2011b). This occurrence may last for two to four weeks before healing. Most people experience four to five outbreaks within the first year and then outbreaks tend to decrease in frequency over time (CDC, 2011b). After the first outbreak, subsequent ones tend to be less severe. In addition to the sores, other symptoms may resemble the flu, including headache, fever, and muscular aches. One of the most serious consequences of herpes is that it may be passed on to a developing fetus through the placenta. Often, a cesarean section is performed at birth.
Diagnosis is performed by visual observation, testing tissue specimens, or administering blood tests. Because it’s a virus, genital herpes can’t be cured; at this point, no virus can. However, oral an-tiviral medications can shorten episodes, decrease their severity, or prevent them from occurring while the medication is being taken. Psychological stress may also be related to outbreaks (Carroll, 2013).
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)It is estimated that over 79 million people in the United States currently have human papillomavirus (HPV); most sexually active people will contract it at some time during their lives (CDC, 2016). It is the most common STI (CDC, 2016). Often, people experience no symptoms, although the virus may live in their tissues and continue to be contagious.
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Biological Development in Adolescence 3 07
In about 90 percent of cases, the body’s immune system will clear up the virus within about two years (CDC, 2013f). Although there is no treatment for the virus itself, there are treatments available for the various diseases HPV can cause (CDC, 2016). Some people develop “genital warts,” “soft, moist, pink, or flesh-colored swellings” usually occurring some-where on the genitals; they can be “single or multiple, small or large, and sometimes cauliflower shaped” (CDC, 2008a). They are transmitted through sexual contact with the infected area. Genital warts can be treated with chemicals that are applied directly to the affected area. They can also be eliminated by applying liquid nitrogen, burning them off with electrodes, employing laser surgery, or removing them surgically (Rathus et al., 2014).
HPV can cause cervical and other cancers (e.g., cancer of the penis or throat) (CDC, 2016). Due to the prevalence of cervical cancer, it is recommended that women have regular PAP smears for early detec-tion and treatment.
Because most sexually active people will contract HPV at some time, the Centers for Disease Control (2013f) urge use of the HPV vaccine:
HPV vaccines are routinely recommended for 11 or 12-year-old boys and girls, and protect against some of the most common types of HPV that can lead to disease and cancer, including most cervical cancers. CDC recommends that all teen girls and women through age 26 get vaccinated, as well as all teen boys and men through age 21 (and through age 26 for gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men). HPV vaccines are most effective if they are provided before an individual ever has sex.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) is a disease caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) that breaks down the body’s immune system, leaving it vulnerable to numerous diseases that could not successfully attack a normal immune system. Sometimes its progression can be slowed down, but it cannot be cured and eventually usually leads to death. HIV can be transmitted in a variety of ways involving bodily fluids, including sexual intercourse. Chapter 10 examines AIDS and HIV in much greater depth. HIV is briefly mentioned here, how-ever, because of its significant transmission during
adolescence (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Although many teens are informed about AIDS and high-risk behav-iors, they don’t view themselves as vulnerable and fail to alter their sexual behavior to prevent infec-tion; for instance, they may have multiple partners and fail to use condoms (Crooks & Baur, 2014).
It should also be emphasized that having another STI increases one’s vulnerability to HIV (CDC, 2014). Genital sores or lesions such as those pres-ent in syphilis or herpes result in breaks in the skin where HIV can readily enter the bloodstream if it’s exposed. Additionally, it has been discovered that HIV becomes more concentrated in bodily fluids of people with an STI. “The higher the concentration of HIV in semen or genital fluids, the more likely it is that HIV will be transmitted to a sex partner” (CDC, 2011b).
Preventing STIsSuggestions for preventing STIs include using con-doms because they prevent contact between the penile tissues and a woman’s genital tissues or a partner’s anal tissues. A condom or a dental dam (a small sheet of latex that can be placed over a wom-an’s genitalia during oral sex) can help prevent STI transmission between mouth and genitalia. Spermi-cides have also been found to help kill some STIs. Washing the genital areas with soap and water before sexual contact can help. Urinating both before and after intercourse can also help clear the urethra of bacteria.
These are specific behaviors that people can follow to help prevent contracting an STI. However, perhaps suggestions concerning thought and choice are the most effective. There are at least six suggestions for preventing the transmission of STIs (Carroll, 2013; Crooks & Baur, 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). First, each person should be knowledgeable about STIs. Know what STIs are and how they can be con-tracted. Second, each individual should be attentive and careful. This doesn’t necessarily mean one should say, “Well, excuse me, dear, but may I please take a moment to examine your genitals for symptoms of STIs?” However, it does mean that being aware and watching for symptoms may help a person avoid contracting a disease. Third, choose a sexual part-ner carefully. A partner who has had several other sexual partners recently is at significant risk of hav-ing an STI. Of course, being in a truly monogamous
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3 0 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
relationship prevents STIs. Fourth, be truthful and straightforward. That means if a person has an STI, he or she should tell a prospective partner about it. It also means that if someone is worried about a po-tential partner having an STI, that person should ask about it. Fifth, be responsible. If a person thinks he or she might have an STI, that person should imme-diately seek diagnosis and treatment. Sixth, use con-doms, which decrease the chances of getting an STI.
LO 7 Explain Major Methods of ContraceptionAnyone who is considering becoming sexually active and who is not intentionally trying to conceive a child needs accurate and specific information about contraceptive methods.1 This includes adolescents; without adequate information, they cannot make responsible decisions. Information helps to prevent people from taking unnecessary risks. We’ve already established the importance of sex education. Infor-mation concerning contraception is especially im-portant. The risk of unplanned pregnancy and the resulting impact on the lives of adolescents are too important to ignore. Over 99 percent of American women aged 15 to 44 who have been sexually active have used at least one type of contraceptive method (Guttmacher Institute, 2015).
Major methods of contraception are described in the following sections. Hormonal methods of con-traception include the contraceptive pill, the birth control patch, the vaginal ring, Depo-Provera injec-tions, hormonal implants, and emergency contra-ception. Spermicides are chemical contraceptives. Barrier methods of contraception include condoms for men, the female condom, the diaphragm, and the cervical cap (FemCap). The birth control sponge (Today Sponge) serves as both a chemical and bar-rier method. The intrauterine device (IUD), includ-ing the ParaGard IUD and hormonal IUDs (Mirena and Skyla), is inserted inside the uterus. Other means of contraception include withdrawal, fertility aware-ness methods (FAMs), and sterilization.
Each method’s level of effectiveness is indicated, and the advantages and disadvantages of each method are explored. No one best method of birth
1An excellent source of information on contraception is Planned Parenthood at https://www.plannedparenthood.org/
control exists for everybody. Each individual must select a method according to how it fits with his or her lifestyle. Some methods are easier to use than others. Some methods require responsible adher-ence to a schedule. Other methods are best suited for persons who have only occasional sexual contacts.
The PillBirth control pills or oral contraceptives are one of the most effective forms of contraception other than ster-ilization. There are two major types of birth control pills. Various companies produce numerous brands of these two types of pills. The most commonly used type combines a synthetic estrogen (a female hor-mone that helps regulate the menstrual cycle) and progestin (a synthetic version of progesterone, a female hormone that makes the lining of the uterus thicken). The combined pill targets a 28-day menstrual cycle and is distributed in monthly packs.
Combined pills are taken in one of three ways. The most commonly used brands of combined pills are sold in packages of 21 pills, which should be taken daily until they are used up. A woman then refrains from starting her next monthly pack of pills for seven days. During this time she will have her menstrual period. Other brands of combined pills come in packs of 28 pills. These include place-bos or ineffective sugar pills for the last seven days of the cycle. This serves to reinforce a woman’s habit of taking one pill each day. A third way of taking birth control pills involves pills (brand name Seaso-nale) that are taken daily “for three straight months, followed by one week of inactive pills”; “a woman gets her period about four times a year, during the 13th month of her cycle” (National Institutes of Health [NIH], 2011). Combined pills prevent the ovaries from ovulating, or releasing a ripened egg ready for fertilization. In a sense, they trick the body into thinking that the woman is pregnant. A preg-nant woman temporarily stops ovulating in order to prevent multiple pregnancies. Combined pills also contain progestin, which makes the cervical mucus thicker and more acidic, thereby making it more dif-ficult for sperm to infiltrate. Progestin also alters the lining of the uterus, making it more difficult for egg implantation. Progestin can also hamper ovulation.
Combined pills are theoretically more than 99 per-cent effective, which is considered excellent (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; Planned Parenthood, 2014).
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Biological Development in Adolescence 3 0 9
Theoretical effectiveness rates refer to the number of women out of 100 in whom pregnancy is prevented. A theoretical effectiveness rate of 100 percent means that for every 100 women, none should become pregnant.
However, the combined pill’s actual effectiveness rate is approximately 91 percent (Planned Parent-hood, 2014). Actual effectiveness refers to how effec-tive the method is in actual daily use. The differences between the two rates can probably be explained by human error. For example, forgetting to take a pill one day increases the chance of pregnancy as hor-monal levels may change enough to allow a woman to ovulate.
In addition to the combined pill, so named be-cause it combines some amount of estrogen with progestin, there are other pills. These include tripha-sic pills and the progestin-only pill.
The progestin-only pill or minipill contains only pro-gestin, as its name implies (NIH, 2011). We have estab-lished that progestin affects the consistency of cervical mucus and alters the uterine lining. The progestin-only pill’s effectiveness rate is somewhat less than that of combined pills (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017; NIH, 2011). About half of women taking progestin-only pills fail lo ovulate at all; progestin also inhibits implantation in the uterus should fertilization take place (Greenberg et al., 2014). Progestin-only pills can provide a useful alternative for women who are breast-feeding, as combined pills sometimes interfere with that process (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Progestin-only pills are also a better possibility for women who, for some reason, cannot use estrogen (Greenberg et al., 2014).
The triphasic pill involves three stages, where the dosage of hormones is increased for each of the three weeks they are taken (instead of maintaining a constant dose over the three-week period as is the case with the combined pill) (Carroll, 2013). The idea is to decrease the total amount of hormones consumed (Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
Contraceptive pills should be taken regularly at approximately the same time each day. Today’s birth control pills have lower dosages of hormones than they did three decades ago. This is to minimize unpleasant side effects. However, their low dosage makes it more important that they be taken at ap-proximately the same time each day. Otherwise, there is a chance that their pregnancy-inhibiting abili-ties will be decreased to the point that they will not work. With combination pills, it is important that the
hormonal levels maintained by the pill do not drop to a level that makes ovulation possible. Once ovula-tion occurs, pregnancy is risked. With progestin-only pills, if the internal reproductive environment is not kept hostile enough to prevent fertilization and im-plantation, pregnancy may occur.
Even the most organized, conscientious woman may occasionally forget to take her contraceptive pill. Should you miss taking a pill, you should take it as soon as possible and then resume taking your next pill at the regular time; should you miss taking more than one pill, you should consult a health-care professional and also use an alternate form of con-traception for backup during the rest of your cycle (Crooks & Baur, 2014).
Advantages of taking either form of birth control pill are numerous. They are very effective. They are fairly easy to use, in that they must simply be swal-lowed daily. Nothing needs to be inserted into the vagina. No complicated process is involved. Nothing interferes with the spontaneity of a sexual encounter. Those who are frequently sexually active are always prepared. The method is readily reversible. Both combination and progestin-only birth control pills can decrease menstrual cramping, produce lighter menstrual periods, and provide some defense against PID (Planned Parenthood, 2016b). Combination birth control pills can also provide some protection against endometrial (the endometrium is the lining of the uterus) and ovarian cancers, ovarian cysts, benign (not cancerous) breast growths, iron defi-ciency anemia, acne, ectopic pregnancy (a pregnancy that develops outside of the uterus that is very dangerous for the mother), uncomfortable symp-toms occurring prior to menstruation such as headaches and depression, and vaginal dryness linked to menopause (Planned Parenthood, 2016).
Disadvantages to taking birth control pills in-clude undesirable side effects such as nausea, vomit-ing, bleeding between menstrual periods, and breast tenderness (Planned Parenthood, 2016b). These side effects resemble those of the first trimester of preg-nancy; they are due to similar changes in hormonal levels. These symptoms usually disappear after two to three months, as they do in pregnancy. Changing brands of birth control pills sometimes helps because different brands often have minor variations in hor-monal dosages. Such variations affect various women differently. Another disadvantage of birth control pills is that they provide no help in preventing STIs.
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310 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Birth control pills also have interactive effects with some other drugs, such as insulin, blood-thinning medications, and some tranquilizers. Some medica-tions such as antibiotics and some tranquilizers can decrease the pill’s effectiveness. Thus, any woman taking birth control pills should check with her physician regarding possible interactive effects with any other drugs she may be taking.
Note that after discontinuing pill use, menstrual periods may not resume until a month or two later; sometimes, a woman will remain irregular for up to six months (Planned Parenthood, 2016b). Although it appears that after stopping the pill, women may take from 0 to 26 weeks to resume ovulation (with an average of 2 weeks), no long-term effects on fertility have been found (Hatcher & Nelson, 2004).
Serious problems resulting from the contraceptive pill are very rare. They include cardiovascular prob-lems such as a “heart attack, stroke, having a blood clot in the legs, lungs, heart, or brain, or developing high blood pressure” as well as “liver tumors, gallstones, or yellowing of the skin or eyes (jaundice)” (Planned Parenthood, 2016b). Variables that can increase risk include being age 35 or older, being overweight, smoking, and suffering from a number of specified health problems such as high cholesterol, high blood pressure, or diabetes (Planned Parenthood, 2016b).
One important factor to consider before using the pill as a means of contraception is a person’s gen-eral approach to life. In other words, a person must be notably responsible and conscientious in order to take the pill regularly every day. Many people, de-spite their good intentions, find it difficult to follow a regimented procedure. Women who are only occa-sionally sexually active might also find it unappeal-ing to take the pill every day.
The Birth Control Patch and Vaginal RingBoth introduced in 2003, the birth control patch (with the brand name Ortho Evra) and the vaginal ring (with the brand name NuvaRing) use the same hormones—estrogen and progestin—as the combina-tion birth control pill. Ortho Evra consists of a thin patch of material that sticks to the skin and releases hormones into the body to prevent pregnancy. Patches are applied to the skin once a week for three weeks; then a week passes without a patch application. They can be placed “on the buttock, abdomen, upper outer arm, or upper torso” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 291).
The NuvaRing is a “2-inch-diameter soft and transparent” flexible ring that’s inserted into the va-gina “between day 1 and day 5 of a menstrual pe-riod” and left in place for three weeks (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 291). After insertion, vaginal “mois-ture and body heat activate the release of hormones” (Carroll, 2013, p. 353). The ring is then removed for a week, and a week later replaced with a new ring.
The actual effectiveness and most of the advan-tages and disadvantages of both the patch and the vaginal ring are the same as for combination birth control pills. They have the additional advantage of being somewhat easier to use, as a woman doesn’t have to remember to take a pill at the same time every day. She must, however, remember to change the patch af-ter seven days and the ring after three weeks. A disad-vantage of both is that they don’t help prevent STIs.
The patch has the potential disadvantages that a woman must take care not to dislodge it and that it may cause skin irritation.
Many women using the vaginal ring indicate that they “have more regular, lighter, and shorter peri-ods” (Planned Parenthood, 2014). However, some-times the vaginal ring can cause “increased vaginal discharge, vaginal irritation, or infection” (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Depo-Provera InjectionsDepo-Provera is the most commonly used hormonal injection method for contraception. It is a progestin-only method like the progestin-only birth control pill. A shot is administered once every 12 weeks. Theoretical effectiveness is over 99 percent, and ac-tual effectiveness is 94 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Actual effectiveness is better than that of the contraceptive pill, patch, or vaginal ring, probably because there is less room for human error.
Advantages of Depo-Provera include avoiding the use of estrogen (thus evading potential negative effects such as cardiovascular problems); a high actual effec-tiveness rate; convenient, easy use; and decreased risk of endometrial cancer (Planned Parenthood, 2014). As with other hormonal methods, one disadvantage is the lack of protection against STIs. Other potential disadvantages include disturbances in the menstrual cycle (e.g., fewer, lighter periods; longer, heavier pe-riods; or increased spotting between periods), weight gain, breast tenderness, headache, nausea, and depres-sion (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
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Biological Development in Adolescence 311
Negative symptoms may continue until all chemi-cals are cleared from the body, which usually takes 12 to 14 weeks (Planned Parenthood, 2014). It may take from 6 to 10 months or more for the shot to wear off enough to become pregnant (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Hormonal ImplantsA hormonal implant with the brand names Implanon or Nexplanon consists of a “thin, flexible plastic implant about the size of a cardboard matchstick” (Planned Parenthood, 2014). A health-care provider places it under the skin of the upper arm, where it can remain effective for up to three years. Although not yet readily available everywhere, increasing numbers of health-care providers are being trained in the insertion procedure.
Implanon and Nexplanan involve a progestin-only hormonal method of contraception, so their func-tioning and effects resemble those of other progestin-only approaches. Their actual effectiveness rate is over 99 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
A hormonal implant has several advantages (Planned Parenthood, 2014). It’s easy to use because it is long lasting and requires no direct action by the woman using it. It is an appropriate option for women who can’t use estrogen or who are breast-feeding. Women can become pregnant relatively soon after re-moving the implant. A woman can choose to have the implant removed by a health-care provider at any time.
There are also disadvantages (Planned Parent-hood, 2014). The most common complaint is irregular bleeding, including spotting between periods. Men-strual periods may be longer and heavier, fewer and lighter, or may stop altogether. Hormonal implants provide no protection against STIs. Less common consequences include changes in sex drive, headache, nausea, pain or discoloration at the insertion site, and sore breasts (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Warn-ing signs of rare but potentially serious side effects include bleeding or pus at the insertion site, develop-ment of a breast lump, movement or expulsion of the implant, stoppage of menstruation after having had regular periods, or unusually heavy vaginal bleeding (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Emergency Contraception (EC)Despite the controversy over newer chemical methods of abortion, several types of emergency
contraception have been approved and are available in the United States (NIH, 2011; Planned Parent-hood, 2014). Emergency contraception (EC) is typi-cally used when unplanned, unprotected intercourse has occurred; when another method of contracep-tion fails (e.g., a condom breaks); when a woman forgets to take birth control pills; or after a sexual assault. EC is intended for emergency use only. EC is different than the “abortion pill” in that it is meant to be taken after sexual intercourse to prevent pregnancy rather than after pregnancy has already occurred (NIH, 2011).
Three types of EC are approved for use in the United States; two of them are pills containing synthetic hor-mones and one an IUD (Planned Parenthood, 2016). One type of pill contains levonorgestrel (a synthetic progestin hormone). There are two brands marketed under the names Plan B One-Step and Next Choice. Both brands involve taking a single tablet as soon as possible after unprotected intercourse occurs.
Means of access to EC vary depending on the type of EC (Planned Parenthood, 2016c). Any woman regardless of age can acquire Plan B One-Step over the counter without having to obtain a medical prescription. It is available at drugstores, Planned Parenthood clinics, and other family plan-ning centers. To obtain Next Choice, a prescription from a health-care professional is needed for women age 16 or younger.
The second type of EC pill contains ulipristal acetate (another type of synthetic progestin hor-mone) marketed under the name Ella (CenterWatch, 2013). One pill is taken orally within five days of unprotected intercourse or failure of a contracep-tive method (CenterWatch, 2013). A prescription is needed to obtain Ella regardless of age, although prescriptions are available online at http://www.ella -kwikmed.com/ (Planned Parenthood, 2016c).
EC pills potentially prevent pregnancy by sup-pressing or delaying ovulation so that the sperm cannot make contact with an egg to fertilize it. Note, therefore, they do not cause an abortion because there is no fertilized egg to abort.
Although EC pills can be taken up to five days after intercourse has occurred, the earlier the pill is taken, the better (NIH, 2011). Levonorgestrel pills (Plan B One-Step and Next Choice One Dose) are “up to 89 percent effective when taken up to 72 hours (three days) after unprotected sex”; the pills “continue to reduce the risk of pregnancy up
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312 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
to 120 hours (five days) after unprotected sex,” but their effectiveness decreases as time passes after that (Planned Parenthood, 2016c). Levonorgestrel is less effective in preventing pregnancy in women who are overweight. Ella’s effectiveness rate is 85 percent if the pill is taken within five days of unprotected intercourse (Planned Parenthood, 2016c). It is more effective in women with higher weight levels than the levonorgestrel pills. Costs of EC pills vary considerably by area and type of available insurance, usually ranging from $30 to $65 (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
No severe difficulties have been reported by the millions of women who have taken EC pills; dis-agreeable side effects may include menstrual periods that occur “earlier or later, or are heavier or lighter than usual,” headaches, breast tenderness, or nau-sea and vomiting (Planned Parenthood, 2014). It is strongly recommended that EC pills not be used as an ongoing means of contraception, because such a practice may affect the predictability of menstrual periods and cycles (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
The third type of EC involves insertion of the ParaGard IUD (intrauterine device, which is dis-cussed more thoroughly in a later section) (Planned Parenthood, 2014). If it is put in place by a health-care professional within five days (120 hours) of unprotected sexual intercourse, it is 99.9 percent effective in preventing pregnancy. Although initial insertion is expensive ($550 to $900), it can subse-quently be used as a form of contraception for as long as 12 years (Planned Parenthood, 2014). In the long run, this is very cost effective. See the sub-sequent section on “The IUD” for a discussion of the benefits and risks of using IUDs. To be used as EC it requires a prescription for all women age 16 or younger (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Vaginal SpermicidesSpermicides are chemical contraceptives that func-tion in two ways. First, the chemicals act to kill sperm. Second, the substance itself acts as a barrier that inhibits sperm from entering the uterus. Sper-micides are available in creams, gels, or foams that are squeezed or thrust into a tube, which in turn is inserted into the vagina. Other spermicides include suppositories and thin, tissue-like sheets of sper-micide, which are placed directly into the vagina. It is important to read the instructions carefully to
be effective. Some condoms are lubricated with a spermicide.
Advantages of spermicides include relative ease of use, ready availability, low cost, and their use only when needed. Despite these advantages, when used alone the theoretical effectiveness rate is only 85 percent, with an actual effectiveness rate of 71 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). However, effectiveness increases significantly when used in conjunction with another form of contraception such as a diaphragm, a male condom, or a female condom. Other disadvantages of spermicides are that they must be used “exactly as directed” or they may be less effective and some women complain that they are “messy” (Planned Parenthood, 2014). One other important note is that most spermicides contain an agent called nonoxynol-9 (NIH, 2011; Planned Parenthood, 2014). If this substance is used too frequently, it can cause irritation and make tissues more vulnerable to HIV and other STIs.
Condoms for MenA condom, also called a prophylactic or rubber, is a thin sheath made of latex or plastic that fits over the penis and serves as a barrier form of contracep-tion. This means that the device acts as a barrier to keep sperm from reaching and fertilizing the egg. The condom is initially rolled up into a little circular packet. This packet must be placed and unrolled on an erect penis. Because it fits rather snugly, it acts as a barrier method of birth control. After ejaculation, sperm are contained in the rubber sheath. They are never allowed to enter the vagina.
Many condoms have a small bulge at the tip to allow room for semen. Otherwise, some empty space must purposefully be left at the tip of the condom so that there is a place to hold the semen.
Condoms are available with a number of vari-ations. Many are lubricated. They come with slightly different textures and a variety of colors and even flavors. (Note that novelty condoms are also available that do not provide contraceptive protection. You can use your imagination about what they might be like. Users should read labels carefully to make certain that they’re getting the protection they need.) The condom’s theoretical effectiveness is 98 percent, and the actual effec-tiveness 82 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Once again, this decrease in effectiveness from
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Biological Development in Adolescence 313
theoretical to actual can be attributed to human error. Effectiveness is significantly increased if used together with a spermicide or if the penis is withdrawn from the vagina prior to ejaculation (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
After ejaculation in the vagina, the condom must be held at the base of the penis as the penis is with-drawn from the vagina. This is to make sure that none of the sperm is spilled and can enter the va-gina. Condoms should not be reused.
A major advantage of condom use is protec-tion from STIs. It is recommended that condoms be used for disease prevention even in conjunction with other contraceptive methods; this is especially important for women, who are 10 to 20 times more likely to contract an STI than men because of the shape and location of their sexual organs (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Condoms may also be used to prevent the spread of STIs during oral sex.
There are other advantages as well. Condoms provide the only nonsurgical means of giving the male some direct responsibility for contraception. They are readily available at a relatively low cost. They don’t require a prior physical examination or a medical prescription. They are small and easy to carry for use at any time. They help some men main-tain a longer erection. Some people incorporate their use into their sex play prior to intercourse. Condoms cause no adverse side effects, except for people who are allergic to latex. Such people, who comprise up to 6 percent of the population, should use plastic condoms instead (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Other than an allergic reaction, there are some o t h e r p o t e n t i a l p s yc h o l og i c a l d i s a dva n t ag e s (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Some couples feel that condoms interfere with the spontaneity of lovemak-ing. Other men and women feel it reduces sensation during sexual intercourse. Some men feel embar-rassed about putting them on or pressured to main-tain an erection once they are on. Such feelings are unfortunate. Ideally, it is best to develop a perspec-tive that focuses on the usefulness and purpose of condoms instead of on negative psychological issues.
The Female CondomThe female condom, available since 1994, provides one of several vaginal barrier forms of contracep-tion. It consists of two rings connected by latex. One ring fits over the cervix; the latex protects the
cervix from contact with either the penis or semen. The other ring rests outside the vagina; here the la-tex forms a pouch for the penetrating penis, thus protecting the penis from vaginal contact. A lu-bricant or spermicide should be put outside of the closed end to facilitate insertion (Planned Parent-hood, 2014). After use, the female condom should be discarded (not in a toilet). They should never be reused. A female condom should never be used to-gether with a male condom because they might stick together, “causing slippage or displacement of one or both devices” (Cates & Stewart, 2004, p. 366). It is also useful during anal intercourse where it is in-serted into the anus instead of the vagina (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
The female condom’s theoretical effectiveness rate is 95 percent, although the actual rate is 79 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). As with the male con-dom, a major advantage is protection from STIs. Another advantage is that the female condom en-ables a woman to take responsibility for both contra-ception and protection from STIs. Other advantages include not requiring a prescription and not affect-ing a woman’s natural hormones.
Disadvantages may involve reactions such as rashes resulting from a latex allergy or minor prob-lems like skin irritation (Cates & Stewart, 2004; NIH, 2011). Other disadvantages include the possibility of slippage during intercourse and the potential reduc-tion of sensation (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
The Diaphragm and Cervical CapIn addition to male and female condoms, two other barrier methods of contraception are the diaphragm and the cervical cap (brand name FemCap). Each is currently available in the United States with a pre-scription from a health-care provider. Each is in-serted through the vagina and fits around the cervix. Because of their similarities, they will be discussed together.
The diaphragm is a thin circular piece of rubber stretched over a flexible ring of wire. It is shaped like a dome. A woman inserts it by pushing it with her fingers up into the vagina to cover the cervix. Because a cervix will vary in size from one woman to another, a woman must be fitted for the correct size diaphragm.
FemCap is “a silicone cup shaped like a sailor’s hat” that snugly covers the cervix with the rim of
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314 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
the hat conforming to the contours of the vagina (Planned Parenthood, 2014). FemCap comes in three sizes. Small is for women who have never expe-rienced a pregnancy, medium for women who have been pregnant and subsequently had an abortion or a cesarean delivery, and large for women who have given birth through the cervix and vagina.
Each of the devices should be used with spermi-cidal cream or jelly that is placed inside the bottom of the cup or dome and spread around the edges. The diaphragm can be inserted up to 6 hours be-fore intercourse and left in place for no more than 24; FemCap can be inserted up to 8 hours prior to sexual intercourse and remain in place for no more than 48 hours (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Leaving any of these devices inside the vagina for a longer time poses the danger of toxic shock syndrome (TSS), a potentially fatal bacterial infection. When using the diaphragm, more spermicide should be injected into the vagina if intercourse occurs more than six hours after insertion or before each subsequent act of intercourse. When wearing FemCap, the device should be checked to be sure it is in place before subsequent acts of intercourse, and more spermicide may be applied.
The diaphragm has a theoretical effectiveness rate of 94 percent and an actual rate of 88 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). FemCap has an actual effectiveness rate of 86 percent for women who have never been pregnant and 71 percent for women who have given birth vaginally (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Effectiveness for both methods can be en-hanced by using spermicide as recommended, using a latex condom in addition to the diaphragm or cervi-cal cap, and making certain that the device is snugly in place over the cervix (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Cates and Stewart (2004) caution that the “contra-ceptive effectiveness of vaginal barriers is influenced by the characteristics of the individuals using them. The most important fact in determining effectiveness is correct and consistent use” (p. 370).
Neither method should be used by women who have allergies to the substances involved, find the de-vice difficult or uncomfortable to insert, have experi-enced some trauma to the uterus, have an infection in the area, or have vaginal obstructions (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
There are a number of advantages to using the diaphragm or FemCap (Planned Parenthood, 2014). They are easy to carry with you. They can be used
only when you need them. They don’t interfere with normal hormones. They’re effective right away. They can be inserted hours before intercourse occurs, so they don’t have to interfere with spontaneity.
Both methods also have disadvantages (Planned Parenthood, 2014). They may be pushed out of po-sition during some sexual positions or behaviors. They are not effective unless they’re in place every single time intercourse occurs. As with many other contraceptive methods, these devices don’t help prevent STIs. Both diaphragms and FemCap may necessitate being refit for another size. Women may be allergic to the materials they’re made of or to the spermicide used. Some women experience recurrent bladder infections when using the diaphragm or a cervical cap. Some women experience pain when us-ing a cervical cap. FemCap should not be used while menstruating.
The Birth Control SpongeThe contraceptive sponge, one brand of which is called the Today Sponge, is currently avail-able over the internet and possibly in some stores. It is a soft, cuplike sponge device that can be in-serted into the vagina and covers the cervix. It is saturated with a spermicide to provide addi-tional protection. Before insertion, it should be moistened with tap water. It can be inserted up to 24 hours before sexual intercourse occurs; the sponge should be left in the vagina for at least 6 hours after sexual intercourse, but no longer than 30 hours because of the potential of TSS (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
The sponge’s effectiveness is based on three principles. First, it acts as a barrier to prevent sperm from entering the cervix. Second, the chemi-cal spermicide it contains acts to kill sperm. Third, its potential for absorbing sperm is also thought to be beneficial. Like the cervical cap, it is signifi-cantly more effective for women who have never had children than for those who have had children. Its theoretical and actual effectiveness for women who have not had children are 91 and 88 percent, respectively; the respective rates for women who have borne children are 80 and 76 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Most advantages resemble those of other bar-rier methods in that the sponge is easy to use, it’s used only when needed, it has no effect on natural
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Biological Development in Adolescence 315
hormones, and partners usually remain unaware of its presence. Disadvantages are that some women find insertion difficult, some notice vaginal irrita-tion, and some find it messy because liquid must be added prior to insertion.
The IUD (Intrauterine Device)The intrauterine device (IUD) is a plastic device that is placed in a woman’s uterus. IUDs, which are made in various shapes, need to be inserted by a physi-cian or trained health professional. Today IUDs are widely used around the world (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Two types of IUDs are available in the United States (Planned Parenthood, 2016c). One goes by the brand name ParaGard, introduced here in 1988 as the Copper T. The ParaGard has fine copper wire wrapped around the base of the T which releases a tiny amount of copper into the uterine environ-ment. Once inserted, it is effective for up to 12 years (Planned Parenthood, 2016d).
The second type of IUD, available in the United States since 2000, is hormonal. Such IUDs also as-sume a T shape and go by the brand names Mirena or Skyla. Hormonal IUDs release a small amount of progestin into the system and remain effective for up to six years (Planned Parenthood, 2016d).
Both types of IUDs work in two ways (Planned Parenthood, 2016d). First, they alter how sperm move and prevent sperm from fertilizing the egg. There is no pregnancy without a fertilized egg. Second, they change the interior lining of the uterus, the endometrium. It is thought that this prevents a fertilized egg (in the event that one does become fertilized) from attaching itself to the en-dometrium, although no factual evidence for this exists.
Hormonal IUDs also produce effects because of their progestin. As we know, progestin prevents ovaries from releasing eggs for fertilization. Addi-tionally, it thickens cervical mucus, making it more difficult for sperm to enter the uterus.
Either type of IUD is attached to a string that hangs out of the cervix. A woman should check the IUD regularly, especially for the first few months after initial insertion because that’s the time it’s most likely to slip out. She can check by inserting her finger into the vagina and feeling if the string is still there. (The cervix feels like the tip of your nose.)
The IUD is one of the most effective contraceptive methods available, with an actual effectiveness rate over 99 percent. There are other advantages as well (Planned Parenthood, 2016d). An IUD provides long-term contraception, requiring no effort other than oc-casionally checking the string. Using an IUD places no restrictions on spontaneity in lovemaking. Shortly after removal of the IUD, a woman can become preg-nant. ParaGard IUD does not affect a woman’s natural hormones. Hormonal IUDs may decrease menstrual cramping and diminish menstrual flow by an average of 90 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2016d).
IUDs also have disadvantages (Planned Parenthood, 2016d). Many women experience spotting between menstrual periods. Some women have more severe cramping. ParaGard may cause increased menstrual flow in addition to worse menstrual cramps (Planned Parenthood, 2016d). Of course, IUDs don’t help pre-vent STIs. Very rarely, women may experience pelvic inflammatory disease or IUD perforation of the uterine wall. Infrequently, an IUD may slip out unnoticed, es-pecially in women who have never been pregnant.
A range of contraceptive methods have been developed, having various rates of effectiveness.
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316 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
WithdrawalWithdrawal, or coitus interruptus, refers to withdrawing the penis before ejaculating into the vagina. Although it has often been considered a relatively ineffective method of birth control, in actuality its effectiveness re-sembles that of the barrier methods of contraception.
Theoretical or perfect effectiveness is 96 percent and actual effectiveness 73 percent (Planned Parenthood, 2014). One problem with this method is that a few drops of semen are expelled by a pair of glands called Cowper’s glands before the full ejaculation. Both urine and semen pass through the urethra. Urine is acidic. An acidic environment is not conducive for sperm. It is thought that these few drops of semen are discharged before ejaculation in order to clear the urethra of some of its acidic quality and better prepare it for sperm (Crooks & Baur, 2014). However, sometimes live sperm remain in the urethra. It is possible, although not prob-able, that these sperm can be transported out through the tip of the penis by the Cowper’s glands’ secretion and still impregnate a woman.
Major advantages of withdrawal are that no ex-traneous devices or substances are needed and it’s free. A primary disadvantage is that its effectiveness depends mainly on the man’s ability to withdraw in time. In the heat of emotion, it may be difficult for some men to exercise great control over ejaculation.
Fertility Awareness MethodsFertility awareness methods (FAMs) (sometimes referred to as the rhythm method) involve monitor-ing a woman’s ovulation cycle and initiating sexual relations only during the safe times of her cycle. Because so many variables are involved, it’s difficult to calculate theoretical effectiveness. These meth-ods are much more effective when the couple can accurately identify the woman’s window of fertility and the couple is capable of following clearly speci-fied procedures in monitoring the menstrual cycle (Jennings, Arevalo, & Kowal, 2004).
There are at least four types of FAMs (Planned Parenthood, 2014). Due to their complicated proce-dures, we will not address them in detail here. The calendar method is the simplest of the three. It in-volves counting the days of the menstrual cycle and trying to determine when ovulation occurs. The idea is to have intercourse only when it is certain that the woman is not ovulating.
A second method is the basal body temperature method. A woman’s body temperature undergoes minor predictable variations depending on where she is in her ovulatory cycle. Using this method in-volves taking her temperature every morning as soon as she wakes up. A problem with this method is that the major temperature differential occurs only after ovulation has taken place. By this time pregnancy prevention could be too late.
A third type of FAM is the cervical mucus (or ovulation) method. It necessitates that a woman ex-amine her cervical mucus throughout her menstrual cycle. The consistency, amount, and clarity of the mucus tend to change predictably depending on where she is in her ovulatory cycle.
Using any two or all of the methods together is referred to as the symptothermal method. This tends to be more effective than when one method is used alone, because infor mation from one data-gathering method can provide input useful in monitoring another method. It can enhance accuracy.
The actual effectiveness rate for using these meth-ods is 76 percent; effectiveness can be enhanced when the methods are used correctly and consis-tently (Planned Parenthood, 2014).
Advantage of using a FAM or FAMs is that there is no manipulation of hormones and that nothing must be done directly prior to sexual inter-course. A major disadvantage is that using any of the FAM methods requires conscientious attention to gathering data every day. FAMs do not help pre-vent STIs.
SterilizationSterilization is “rendering a person incapable of con-ceiving with surgical procedures that interrupt the passage of the egg or sperm” (Kelly, 2008, p. 314). It is one of the most common family planning methods used in the world; it is also common for couples who are of fertile age in the United States (Carroll, 2013). The procedures are considered to be permanent, although they can be reversed in some cases.
Sterilization for women involves a tubal ligation, in which the fallopian tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus are severed. Hence, sperm are unable to reach the egg. Sterilization for men entails a vasectomy; a small section of the vas deferens is re-moved near the place where the scrotum is attached
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Biological Development in Adolescence 317
to the body. The vas deferens is the tube that trans-ports sperm from the testicles to the urethra. Thus, sperm are not ejaculated.
Many young people ask whether sterilization interferes with sexual responsiveness. They won-der if having a vasectomy means that a man will not be able to ejaculate or have an orgasm. Nei-ther concern, of course, is valid. Most of the milky liquid contained in semen is produced by the seminal vesicles and the prostate gland, other organs that feed into the vas deferens later in the ejaculation process. This liquid is still ejaculated, but without any sperm in it. Because sperm are so tiny, the volume of semen ejaculated is virtually unaffected. Sterilization has no effect on either men’s or women’s ability to respond sexually or enjoy sexual activity.
An advantage of sterilization is that it is consid-ered permanent. No more attention need be given to contraceptive methods. A disadvantage is that a per-son may change his or her mind about having chil-dren. Sterilization allows little room for that choice. Another disadvantage is that sterilization has noth-ing to do with preventing STIs.
2. Contraceptive vaccines (immunocontraceptives) for men. Such vaccines would cause infertility by inducing the man’s immune system to inhibit a phase in sperm or testosterone production (Carroll, 2013; Crooks & Baur, 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
3. Contraceptive vaccines (immunocontraceptives) for women. A vaccine is being investigated that would immunize women against the hormonal changes necessary to make the uterus hospita-ble for implantation of a fertilized egg (Carroll, 2013; Crooks & Baur, 2014).
4. Microbicides. These are chemicals that poten-tially kill bacteria and viruses causing STIs as well as sperm (Carroll, 2013; Crooks & Baur, 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017). Microbicides might be used alone or in conjunction with a con-dom or diaphragm (Hyde & DeLamater, 2014).
5. Spray-on contraception. Nesterone, a progestin that can be sprayed on the skin daily, is being studied; it is almost immediately absorbed by the skin and then slowly diffused into the blood-stream (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Greenberg et al., 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2014).
6. New sterilization methods. New procedures are being investigated that would be more readily reversible than current methods (Guha, 2007). “One involves injecting a blocking gel into the vas deferens [the tube that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra]; to reverse the procedure, the gel can be dissolved” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 307; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
7. New IUDs. A number of new IUD designs a re b e i n g s t u d i e d ( C ro o k s & B a u r, 2 0 1 4 ; Hyde & DeLamater, 2014). One, with an an-ticipated minimal effectiveness period of five years, is frameless, composed only of a string attached to copper tubes (Hyde & DeLama-ter, 2014).
8. A new vaginal ring. Rings being investigated in-volve releasing some combination of hormones that prevent both conception and STIs (Green-berg et al., 2014; Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
9. Natural factors. Some research is investigating whether women might monitor their saliva or urine in order to determine when they are ovu-lating (Carroll, 2013).
10. Fertility computers. Computers are being stud-ied regarding their potential ability to identify when a women is fertile (Carroll, 2013).
Ethical Questions 6.5
EP 1
To what extent should contraception be made readily available to anyone who wants it? What kinds of contraception should be offered, if any? Who should pay for contraception (e.g., individuals using it or the government)?
Contraceptive Methods of the FutureA number of contraceptive methods are being inves-tigated for future use:
1. Hormones to suppress sperm production. Research has focused on injecting males with hormones linked’ to decreased sperm production or to in-hibiting the ability of sperm to fertilize an egg effectively (Greenberg et al., 2014). Hormonal implants that inhibit sperm production are also being investigated (Carroll, 2013).
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318 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to:
LO 1 Define adolescence.Adolescence is the transitional period between childhood and adulthood during which young people mature physically and sexually.
LO 2 Describe major physical changes during adolescence (including puberty, the growth spurt, the secular trend, and primary and secondary sex characteristics).Puberty is marked by the sudden enlargement of the reproductive organs and sexual genitalia, and the development of secondary sex characteristics (features that distinguish the genders but are not di-rectly involved in reproduction). The initial entrance into puberty is typically characterized by a sharp increase in height, referred to as a growth spurt. People generally grow taller and bigger than they did a century ago, which is referred to as the secular trend. The development of primary and secondary sex characteristics reflect the proof of puberty.
LO 3 Explain psychological reactions to physical changes.Adolescents have strong psychological reactions to their physical changes. It is important for adoles-cents to feel that they are physically attractive.
Adolescents mature at different rates. Research reveals mixed results regarding early-maturing boys. Early maturers tend to be more popular and to become leaders. However, they also have a greater tendency to be aggressive and delinquent. Late maturers tend to have lower self-esteem. Because of the many variables involved in human development, differences between early- and late-maturing boys become much less clear by adulthood. Early-maturing girls have an increased vulnerability to a range of problems. As with boys, in adulthood, differences between early and late maturers become much less clear.
An adolescent’s brain undergoes physical changes in response to new hormonal production.
Environmental factors, peer influences, family inf luences, and personal characteristics may
place adolescents at risk for using mind-altering substances.
LO 4 Describe sexual activity in adolescence.Sexual activity during adolescence can result in unplanned pregnancy and various other conse-quences for adolescent parents and their children. Research suggests that comprehensive adolescent pregnancy programs and other supports can im-prove the futures of adolescent mothers and their children. Teenage fathers are often neglected and could benefit from greater understanding and support.
LO 5 Assess sex education and empowerment.Comprehensive sex education programs can help prepare adolescents to make responsible decisions by providing information; addressing attitudes, val-ues, and insights; discussing relationships and teach-ing interpersonal skills; and emphasizing taking responsibility for one’s own behavior. Sex education curricula should be responsive to the needs and val-ues of diverse racial and ethnic groups.
LO 6 Identify sexually transmitted diseases.Each year, millions of young people contract sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, pubic lice, scabies, trichomo-niasis, genital herpes, human papillomavirus (HPV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
LO 7 Explain major methods of contraception.Anyone considering becoming sexually active re-quires accurate and specific information about contraception. There is no one best method of contraception for everyone. Hormonal methods of contraception include the contraceptive pill, the birth control patch, the vaginal ring, Depo-Provera injections, hormonal implants, and emergency con-traception. Spermicides are chemical contraceptives. Barrier methods of contraception include condoms for men, the female condom, the diaphragm, and the cervical cap (FemCap). The birth control sponge (Today Sponge) serves as both a chemical and bar-rier method, intrauterine devices (IUDs), including the ParaGard IUD and hormonal IUDs (Mirena or Skyla), are inserted inside the uterus. Other means of contraception include withdrawal, fertility aware-ness methods (FAMs), and sterilization. Each indi-vidual should evaluate the effectiveness, advantages,
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Biological Development in Adolescence 319
and disadvantages of each method in order to deter-mine the most effective method for him or her.
COMPETENCY NOTEST h e fo l l ow i n g i d e n t i f i e s wh e re E d u c at i o n a l Policy(EP) competencies and behaviors are dis-cussed in this chapter.
EP 6a Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP 7b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
EP 8b Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the interventions with clients and constituencies; (All of this chapter.)Material on concepts and theories about human behavior and the social environment affecting
biological development in adolescence are presented throughout this chapter.
EP1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 288, 292, 294, 303, 317)Ethical questions are posed.
EP 2a. Apply and communicate understanding of the Importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;
EP 2c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies (pp. 286, 294, 303)Diversity content is presented on: diversity and men-arche, racial and other differences in adolescent sexual activity, and sex education for Native Americans.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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32 0
Psychological DeveloPment in aDolescence
“Teen Alcoholism Shows Dramatic Increase”“Eighteen-Year-Old Hangs Self in Kenosha Jail”“$600,000 Worth of Cocaine Found in High School Drug Bust”“Teen Mother Shoots Infant Daughter, Husband, and Self”“Four Killed by Drunk Teen Driver”
These statements might all be seen in newspaper headlines. They refer to tragedies that involve adolescents. Although the media often address sensationalist and tragic events, the fact that such things are occurring merits our attention. What psychological variables operate to help cause such happenings?
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 321
A PerspectiveThis chapter will focus on some of the major psychological growth tasks and pitfalls confronting adolescents. Psychological systems involve such aspects of growth and de-velopment as forming an identity and developing a personal morality. An individual’s psychological system interacts with biological and social systems to affect behavior.
We have already addressed some of the interactions between biological and psy-chological systems. For example, maturation rate and body weight (which relate to an individual’s biological system) can affect body image and self-concept (which relate to the psychological system). Knowledge of psychological milestones normally negotiated during adolescence is important for the overall assessment of behavior and functioning. Additionally, this chapter will discuss two categories of critical issues that affect many individuals in this age group: assertiveness and suicide.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Explore identity formation in adolescence (including Erikson’s psychosocial theory, Marcia’s categories of identity, and Glasser’s Theories)LO 2 Examine race, culture, ethnicity, and identity developmentLO 3 Explore moral development (including Kohlberg’s theory, Gilligan’s approach, and a social learning perspective)LO 4 Review Fowler’s theory of faith developmentLO 5 Assess empowerment through assertiveness and assertiveness trainingLO 6 Explore suicide in adolescence
EP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
LO 1 Explore Identity Formation in AdolescencePersonal identities crystallize during adolescence. Through experimentation and evaluation of experi-ence and ideas, the adolescent should establish some sense of who he or she really is. In other words, people get to know themselves during adolescence. Explored here are Erikson’s psychosocial theory and Marcia’s categories of identity.
Erikson’s Psychosocial TheoryErik Erikson (1950, 1968) proposed a theory of psychological development comprising eight stages. This theory focuses on how personalities evolve
throughout life as a result of the interaction between biologically based maturation and the demands of society. The emphasis is on the role of the social envi-ronment in personality development. The eight stages are based partly on the stages proposed by Freud and partly on Erikson’s studies in a wide variety of cultures. Erikson writes that the society in which one lives makes certain psychic demands at each stage of development. Erikson calls these demands crises. During each psychosocial stage, the individual must seek to adjust to the stresses and conflicts involved in these crises. The search for identity is a crisis that confronts people during adolescence.
Although Erikson’s psychosocial theory ad-dresses development throughout the life span, it is included here because of the importance of identity
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32 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Stage 1: Basic Trust Versus Basic MistrustFor infants up to 18 months of age, learning to trust others is the overriding crisis. To develop trust, one must understand that some people and some things can be depended on. Parents provide a major vari-able for such learning. For instance, infants who consistently receive warm, loving care and nourish-ment learn to trust that these things will be provided to them. Later in life, people may apply this con-cept of trust to friends, an intimate partner, or their government.
Stage 2: Autonomy Versus Shame and DoubtThe crisis of autonomy versus shame and doubt characterizes early childhood, from 18 months to 3 years. Children strive to accomplish things inde-pendently. They learn to feed themselves and to use the toilet. Accomplishing various tasks provides chil-dren with feelings of self-worth and self-confidence. On the other hand, if children of this age are con-stantly downtrodden, restricted, or punished, shame and doubt will emerge instead. Self-doubt will re-place the self-confidence that should have developed during this period.
Stage 3: Initiative Versus GuiltPreschoolers aged 3 to 6 years must face the crisis of taking their own initiative. Children at this age are extremely active physically; the world fascinates them and beckons them to explore it. They have ac-tive imaginations and are eager to learn. Preschool-ers who are encouraged to take initiative to explore and learn are likely to assimilate this concept for use later in life. They will be more likely to feel con-fident in initiating relationships, pursuing career objectives, and developing recreational interests. Preschoolers who are consistently restricted, pun-ished, or treated harshly are more likely to experi-ence the emotion of guilt. They want to explore and experience, but they are not allowed to. Instead of learning initiative, they are likely to feel guilty about their tremendous desires to do so many things. In reaction, they may become passive observers who follow the lead of others instead of initiating their own activities and ideas.
Stage 4: Industry Versus InferioritySchool-age children 6 to 12 years old must address the crisis of industry versus inferiority. Children in this age group need to be productive and succeed
formation during adolescence. After the entire the-ory is discussed, its application to adolescence will be explored in greater depth.
Each stage of human development presents its characteristic crises. Coping well with each crisis makes an individual better prepared to cope with the next. Although specific crises are most critical dur-ing particular stages, related issues continue to arise throughout a person’s life. For example, the conflict of trust versus mistrust is especially important in in-fancy. Yet children and adults continue to struggle with whether or not to trust others.
Resolution of each crisis is an ideal, not neces-sarily a reality. The degree to which crises in earlier stages are resolved will affect a person’s ability to re-solve crises in later stages. If an individual doesn’t learn how to trust in stage 1, that person will find it very difficult to attain intimacy in stage 6.
Forming your identity is a process of serious reflection about who you are and you want to became.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 32 3
in their activities. In addition to play, a major fo-cus of their lives is school. Therefore, mastering academic skills and material is important. Those who do learn to be industrious master activities. Comparison with peers becomes exceptionally im-portant. Children who experience failure in school, or even in peer relations, may develop a sense of inferiority.
Stage 5: Identity Versus Role ConfusionAdolescence is a time when young people explore who they are and establish their identity. It is the transition period from childhood to adulthood when people examine the various roles they play (e.g., child, sibling, student, Catholic, Native American, basketball star) and integrate these roles into a per-ception of self, an identity. Some people are unable to integrate their many roles and have difficulty cop-ing with conflicting roles; they are said to suffer from role confusion. Such persons feel confused and un-certain about their identity.
Stage 6: Intimacy Versus IsolationYoung adulthood is characterized by a quest for inti-macy, which involves more than the establishment of a sexual relationship. Intimacy includes the ability to share with and give to another person without being afraid of sacrificing one’s own identity. People who do not attain intimacy are likely to suffer isolation. These people have often been unable to resolve some of the crises of earlier psychosocial development.
Various types of intimate relationships and how people experience them will be discussed in more de-tail in Chapter 8.
Stage 7: Generativity Versus StagnationMature adulthood is characterized by the crisis of generativity versus stagnation. During this time of life, people become concerned with helping, produc-ing for, or guiding the following generation. Gen-erativity involves a genuine concern for the future beyond one’s own life track, although it does not necessarily involve procreating one’s own children. Rather, it concerns a drive to be creative and pro-ductive in a way that will aid people in the future. Adults who lack generativity become self-absorbed. They tend to focus primarily on their own concerns and needs rather than on those of others. The result is stagnation—a fixed, discouraging lack of progress and productivity.
Stage 8: Ego Integrity Versus DespairThe crisis of ego integrity versus despair character-izes old age. During this time of life, people tend to look back over their years and reflect on them. If they appreciate their life and are content with their accomplishments, they are said to have ego integrity—the ultimate form of identity integra-tion. Such people enjoy a sense of peace and accept the fact that life will soon be over. Others who have failed to cope successfully with past life crises and have many regrets experience despair.
CONCEPT SUMMARY
Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development
Stage Crisis Age Important Event
1. Basic trust versus basic mistrust Birth to 18 months Feeding
2. autonomy versus shame and doubt 18 months to 3 years toileting
3. initiative versus guilt 3 to 6 years locomoting
4. industry versus inferiority 6 to 12 years school
5. identity versus role confusion adolescence Peer relationship
6. intimacy versus isolation young adulthood love relationship
7. generativity versus stagnation maturity Parenting and creating
8. ego integrity versus despair old age Reflecting on and accepting one’s life
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32 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Implications of Identity Formation in AdolescenceAchieving genital maturity and rapid body growth sig-nals young people that they will soon be adults. They therefore begin to question their future roles as adults.
The most important task of adolescence is to develop a sense of identity, a sense of “who I am.” Highlight 7.1 poses some questions to help you explore and articu-late your sense of identity. Making a career choice is an important part of this search for identity.
HIGHLIGHT 7.1
How to Determine Who You AreForming an identity essentially involves thinking about, and arriving at, answers to the following questions: (1) What do I want out of life? (2) What kind of person do I want to be? (3) Who am I? The most important decisions you make in your life may well be in arriving at answers to these questions.
Answers to these questions are not easy to arrive at. They require considerable contemplation and trial and error. But if you are to lead a fulfilling life, it is imperative to find answers to give direction and meaning to your life. Without answers, you are apt to muddle through life by being a passive responder to situations that arise, rather than a continual achiever of your life’s goals.
Knowing who you are and where you are going are important both for clients and for you as a practitioner. The following questions may be a useful tool in pursuing that quest:
1. What do I find satisfying, meaningful, and enjoyable? (Only after you identify what is meaningful and gratifying will you be able to consciously seek involvement in activities that will make your life fulfilling, and avoid those activities that are meaningless or stifling.)
2. What is my moral code? (One possible code is to seek to fulfill your needs and to seek to do what you find enjoyable, doing so in a way that does not deprive others of the ability to fulfill their needs.)
3. What are my spiritual beliefs?4. What are my employment goals? (Ideally, you should seek
employment that you find stimulating and satisfying, that you are skilled at, and that provides you with enough money to support your lifestyle.)
5. What are my sexual morals? (All of us should develop a consistent code that we are comfortable with and that helps us to meet our needs without exploiting others. There is no one right code—what works for one may not work for another, due to differences in lifestyles, life goals, and personal values.)
6. Do I want to have a committed relationship? (If yes, with what type of person and when? How consistent are your answers here with your other life goals?)
7. Do I want to have children? (If yes, how many and when? How consistent are your answers here with your other life goals?)
8. What area of the country or world do I want to live in? (Variables to be considered are climate, geography, type
of dwelling, rural or urban setting, closeness to relatives or friends, and characteristics of the neighborhood.)
9. What do I enjoy doing with my leisure time?10. What kind of image do I want to project to others?
(Your image will be composed of your dressing style and grooming habits, your emotions, personality, assertiveness, capacity to communicate, material possessions, moral code, physical features, and voice patterns. You need to assess your strengths and shortcomings honestly in this area, and seek to make needed improvements.)
11. What type of people do I enjoy being with, and why?12. Do I want to improve the quality of my life and that of
others? (If yes, in what ways, and how do you hope to achieve these goals?)
13. What types of relationships do I want to have with relatives, friends, neighbors, and people I meet for the first time?
14. What are my thoughts about death and dying?15. What do I hope to be doing in 5 years, 10 years, 20 years?
To have a fairly well-developed sense of identity, you need to have answers to most, but not all, of these questions. Very few people are able to arrive at rational, consistent answers to all the questions. Having answers to most of them will provide a reference for developing your views in the yet unanswered areas.
Honest, well-thought-out answers to these questions will go a long way toward defining who you are. Again, what you want out of life, along with your motivation to achieve these goals, will primarily determine your identity. These questions are simple to state, but arriving at answers is a complicated, ongoing process. In addition, expect some changes in your life goals as time goes on. Environmental influences change (e.g., changes in working conditions). Also, as personal growth occurs, changes are apt to occur in activities that you find enjoyable and also in your beliefs, attitudes, and values. Accept such changes. If you have a fairly good idea of who you are, you will be prepared to make changes in your life goals, which will give continued direction to your life. Your life is shaped by events that are the results of decisions you make and decisions that are made for you. Without a sense of identity, you will not know what decisions are best for you. With a sense of identity, you will be able to direct your life toward goals you select and find personally meaningful.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 32 5
The primary danger during the identity devel-opment process, according to Erikson, is identity confusion. This confusion can be expressed in a va-riety of ways. One is to delay acting like a respon-sible adult. Another is to commit oneself to poorly thought-out courses of action. Still another way is to regress into childishness to avoid assuming the responsibilities of adulthood. Erikson views the cliquishness of adolescence and its intolerance of differences as defenses against identity confusion. Falling in love is viewed as an attempt to define identity. Through self-disclosing intimate thoughts and feelings with another, the adolescent is articu-lating and seeking to better understand his or her identity. Through seeing the reactions of a loved one to one’s intimate thoughts and feelings, the ado-lescent is testing out values and beliefs and is better able to clarify a sense of self.
Adolescents experiment with roles that represent the many possibilities for their future identity. For instance, students take certain courses to test out their future career interests. They also experiment with a variety of part-time jobs to test occupational interests. They date and go steady to test relation-ships with the opposite sex. They may struggle with their sexual identity. Dating also allows for different self-presentations with each new date. Adolescents may also experiment with drugs—alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, cocaine, and so on. Many are confused about their religious beliefs and seek in a variety of ways to develop a set of religious and moral beliefs with which they can be comfortable. They also tend to join, participate in, and then quit a variety of or-ganizations. They experiment with a variety of in-terests and hobbies. As long as no laws are broken (and health is not seriously affected) in the process of experimenting, our culture gives teenagers the free-dom to experiment in a variety of ways in order to develop a sense of identity.
Erikson (1959) uses the term psychosocial mora-torium to describe a period of free experimentation before a final sense of identity is achieved. Gener-ally, our society allows adolescents freedom from the daily expectations of role performance. Ideally, this moratorium allows young people the freedom to ex-periment with values, beliefs, and roles so that they can find a role in society that maximizes their per-sonal strengths and affords positive recognition from the community.
The crisis of identity versus role confusion is best resolved through integrating earlier identifications, present values, and future goals into a consistent self-concept. A sense of identity is achieved only af-ter a period of questioning, reevaluation, and experi-mentation. Efforts to resolve questions of identity may take the young person down paths of emotional involvement, overzealous commitment, alienation, rebellion, or playful wandering.
Many adolescents are idealistic. They see the evils and negatives in our society and in the world. They cannot understand why injustice and imperfection exist. They yearn for a much better life for them-selves and for others and have little understanding of the resources and hard work it takes for advance-ments. They often try to change the world, and their efforts are genuine. If society can channel their en-ergies constructively, adolescents can make mean-ingful contributions. Unfortunately, some become disenchanted and apathetic after being continually frustrated with obstacles.
Importance of Achieving IdentityAdolescents struggle with developing a sense of who they are, what they want out of life, and what kind of people they want to be. Arriving at answers to such questions is among the most important tasks people face in life. Without answers, a person will not be prepared to make such major decisions as which career to select; deciding whether, when, or whom to marry; deciding where to live; and de-ciding what to do with leisure time. Unfortunately, many people muddle through life and never arrive at well-thought-out answers to these questions. Those who do not arrive at answers are apt to be depressed, anxious, indecisive, and unfulfilled. (See Highlight 7.1.)
The Formation of IdentityIdentity development is a lifelong process. During the early years, one’s sense of identity is largely de-termined by the reactions of others. A long time ago, Cooley (1902) coined this labeling process as result-ing in the looking-glass self—that is, people develop their self-concept in terms of how others relate to them. For example, if a neighborhood identifies a teenage male as being a troublemaker or delinquent, neighbors are then apt to distrust him, accuse him of delinquent acts, and label his behavior as such.
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32 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
This labeling process, the youth begins to realize, also results in a type of prestige and status, at least from his peers. In the absence of objective ways to gauge whether he is in fact a delinquent, the youth will rely on the subjective evaluations of others. Thus, he is apt to begin to gradually perceive him-self as a delinquent, and to begin to enact the delin-quent role.
Labels have a major impact on our lives. If a child is frequently called stupid by his or her parents, that child is apt to develop a low self-concept, anticipate failure in many areas (particularly academic), put forth little effort in school and in competitive inter-actions with others, and end up failing.
Because identity development is a lifelong pro-cess, positive changes are probably possible even for those who view themselves as failures. In identity formation, it is important to remember that what we want out of the future is more important than past experience in determining what the future will be. The past is fixed and cannot be changed, but the present and the future can be. Although the past may have been painful and traumatic, it does not fol-low that the present and the future must be so. We are in control of our lives, and we largely determine what our future will be.
Marcia’s Categories of IdentityJames Marcia (1980, 1991, 2002; Marcia & Carpen-dale, 2004) has done a substantial amount of re-search on the Eriksonian theory of psychosocial development. He identifies four major ways in which people cope with identity crises: (1) identity achieve-ment, (2) foreclosure, (3) identity diffusion, and (4) moratorium. People may be classified into these categories on the basis of three primary criteria: First, whether the individual experiences a major cri-sis during identity development; second, whether the person expresses a commitment to some type of oc-cupation; and third, whether there is commitment to some set of values or beliefs.
Identity AchievementTo reach the stage of identity achievement, people undergo a period of intense decision making. After much effort, they develop a personalized set of val-ues and make their career decisions. The attainment of identity is usually thought of as the most benefi-cial of the four status categories.
ForeclosurePeople who fall into the foreclosure category are the only ones who never experience an identity crisis as such. They glide into adulthood without experi-encing much turbulence or anxiety. Decisions con-cerning both career and values are made relatively early in life. These decisions are often based on their parents’ values and ideas rather than their own. For example, a woman might become a mother and a part-time waitress as her own mother had done, not because she makes a conscious choice, but be-cause she assumes it’s what she is expected to do. Likewise, a man might become an auto mechanic or an accountant just because his father was an auto mechanic or an accountant, and it seemed a good way of life.
It’s interesting that the term foreclosure is used to label this category. Foreclosure involves shutting someone out from involvement, as one would fore-close a mortgage and bar a person who mortgaged his or her property from reclaiming it. To foreclose one’s identity implies shutting off various other op-portunities to grow and change.
Identity DiffusionPeople who experience identity diffusion suffer from a serious lack of decision and direction. Although they go through an identity crisis, they never re-solve it. They are not able to make clear decisions concerning either their personal ideology or their career choice. These people tend to be characterized by low self-esteem and lack of resolution. For exam-ple, such a person might be a drifter who never stays more than a few months in any one place and defies any serious commitments.
MoratoriumThe moratorium category includes people who expe-rience intense anxiety during their identity crisis, yet have not made decisions regarding either personal values or a career choice. However, moratorium peo-ple experience a more continuous, intense struggle to resolve these issues. Instead of avoiding the deci-sion-making issue, they address it almost constantly. They are characterized by strong, conflicting feelings about what they should believe and do. For example, a moratorium person might struggle intensely with a religious issue, such as whether there is a God. Mor-atorium people tend to have many critical, but as yet unresolved, issues.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 32 7
Critical Thinking: The Evaluation of Theory and Application to Client SituationsBoth Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories provide inter-esting insights into people’s behavior and their in-teraction with others. Both provide a framework for better understanding “normal” life crises and events. For example, stage 2 of Erikson’s psychosocial the-ory focuses on ages 18 months to 3 years. Most of this period is frequently referred to as the “terrible twos.” Understanding that children in this age group are striving to achieve some autonomy and control over their environment during this time helps us also understand that their behavior is full of action and exploration. Children should not be reprimanded for the types of behavior that are normal and natural during this stage of development. Such insight can better prepare social workers for helping parents develop age-appropriate expectations and behavior management techniques.
Marcia’s emphasis on the acquisition of coping skills also provides insights for work with clients. Those people who are trapped in foreclosure, iden-tity diffusion, or moratorium identity crises may benefit from help in the resolution of these crises. Social workers can give feedback in addition to help-ing people formulate and evaluate new alternatives. Acknowledgment of the existence of such crises and understanding their dynamics are the first steps to-ward resolution.
Both Marcia’s and Erikson’s theories emphasize the importance of identity formation. Looking at adolescence with some understanding of the forces at work can help social workers better understand the dynamics of human behavior within the social environment. For instance, strife between parents and children is common during adolescence. It is also understandable. Parents try to maintain some control with their leadership roles. Adolescents struggle to define themselves as individuals and to
become independent. Knowing that these are natural occurrences provides clues to insights social workers can give to clients regarding their feelings and behav-iors. The struggle for control can be identified and discussed. Parental restrictiveness and adolescent rebelliousness can be examined. New behavioral op-tions for interaction can be explored.
Traditional theories of identity development such as Erickson’s and Marcia’s have limitations due to their Westernized perspective on how people should develop. For example, traditional Asian and Native American cultures generally emphasize interdepen-dence instead of stressing the development of an independent identity. A subsequent section explores some of the issues concerning cultural background and identity development. Spotlight 7.1 addresses the special issues involved in identity development for lesbian and gay adolescents.
We established in an earlier chapter that social workers need to evaluate theory and determine for themselves what theoretical concepts and frame-works are most suited for their own practice with clients. Questions to keep in mind while doing this include the following:
1. How does the theory apply to client situations?2. What research supports the theory?3. To what extent does the theory coincide with so-
cial work values and ethics?4. Are other theoretical frameworks or concepts avail-
able that are more relevant to practice situations?
Glasser’s Theories on IdentityWilliam Glasser asserts that there is a single basic psychological need faced by everyone: the need for an identity. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 302) define the need for an identity as
[t]he need to feel that each of us is somehow separate and distinct from every other living being on the face of this earth and that no other person thinks, looks, acts, and talks exactly as we do.
Although identity can be viewed from several viewpoints, Glasser believes from a therapeutic van-tage point it is most useful to conceptualize identity in terms of people who develop a success identity versus those who develop a failure identity.
People who develop a success identity do so through the pathways of love and worth. People who view themselves as a success must feel that at least
Ethical Questions 7.1
EP 1
To what extent is there on ideal identity everyone should strive to acquire? How much individuality should be allowed or encouraged in identity formation?
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32 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
one other person loves them, and that they also love at least one other person. They must also feel that at least one other person feel they are worthwhile, and they must feel they (themselves) are worthwhile.
In order to develop a success identity a person must experience both love and worth. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 3l2) state,
We see worth and love as two very different elements, consider, for example, the extreme case of the “spoiled” child. One may fantasize that a child, if showered with “pure love,” whose parents’ “goal” was never to frustrate on stress or strain this child in any way, and when he was faced with a task or difficulty always had his parents to perform this task for him, this child always relieved of responsibility would develop into an individual who would feel loved but would not experience worth. Worth comes through accomplishing tasks and achieving success in the accomplishment of those tasks.
A person can also feel worthwhile through ac-complishing tasks (for example, a successful busi-ness person), but believe s/he is unloved because s/he cannot name someone who “I love and who loves me.” Experiencing only one of these elements (worth or love) without the other can lead to a fail-ure identity.
A failure identity is likely to develop when a child has received inadequate love or been made to feel worthless. People with failure identities express their sense of failure by becoming mentally ill, by delin-quency, or by withdrawal. Almost everyone with a failure identity is lonely.
Why do some people become “mentally ill”? Glasser indicates that people who are labeled men-tally ill are those who deny or distort reality. They change the world in their minds, in order to seek to feel important, significant, and meaningful. Having a failure identity is experienced by a person as be-ing intensely discomforting, and changing reality through fantasying is one way of dealing with this discomfort. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 313) fur-ther elaborate:
The person who is mentally ill has distorted the real world in his own fantasy to make himself feel more comfortable. He denies reality to protect himself from facing the feeling of being meaningless and insignificant in the world around him. For example, both the grandiose delusion and the persecutory
delusion of the so-called schizophrenic provide support or solace for him.
Glasser (1976, pp. 19–20) describes the choice as-pect of those who decide to become “crazy”:
Crazy, psychotic, nuts, loony, bonkers, schizo-phrenic. There are a dozen popular, as well as pseudoscientific, words for this condition. I happen to prefer “crazy” because it is understandable; it doesn’t have the pseudoscientific connotation of schizophrenia, it is not technical, and it emphasizes much better than any of the other terms the choice aspect of this category. Schizophrenia sounds so much like a disease that prominent scientists delude themselves into searching for its cure, when the “cure” is within each crazy person who has chosen it. If he can find love or worth he will give up the choice readily—a big “if,” I will admit, but hundreds do each day as they are discharged from good hospitals and clinics. With adequate treatment they learn to become strong enough to stop choosing to be crazy. Becoming crazy is actually a fairly sensible choice of the weak because no one expects a crazy person to fulfill his needs in the real world for the obvious reason that he is no longer in it. He now lives in the world of his mind, and there within his own mind, crazy as it may be, he tries to find, and to some extent usually succeeds in finding, a substitute for the adequacy he can’t find in reality. Within his own mind, within his own imagination, out of his own thought processes, he may be able to reduce the pain of his failure and find a little relief. For inadequacy he provides delusions of grandeur; for loneliness, hallucinations to keep him company. He may have a delusion that everybody loves him or that he is an overwhelmingly omnipotent person, which does relieve his pain. Every mental hospital has one or two Jesus Christs, the acme of omnipotence and power. When all of this is created within a person’s own mind we call it crazy, but it makes sense to him because it doesn’t hurt as much as being lucid but miserably inadequate.
Other individuals seek to handle the discomfort of a failure identity through withdrawal. Still oth-ers seek to handle the discomfort by ignoring reality, even though they are aware of the real world. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 313) describe these people:
These individuals are referred to as delinquents, criminals, “sociopaths,” “personality disorders,”
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 32 9
and so on. They are basically the anti-social individuals who choose to break the rules and regulations of society on a regular basis, thereby ignoring reality.
A success identity or a failure identity is not mea-sured by finances or labels, but rather in terms of how a person perceives him/herself. It is possible for individuals to regard themselves as failures, while others view them as being successful. Formation of a failure identity usually begins during the years when children first enroll in school. It is at about this age (five or six) that children develop the social and verbal skills, and the thinking capacities to define themselves as being either successful or unsuccessful. Children, as they grow older, then tend to associate with others having a similar identity; those with fail-ure identities associating with others having a failure identity, and success identities associating with other successful people. As the years pass the two groups associate less and less with each other. Glasser and Zunin (1979, p. 312) note:
For example, it is indeed rare for a person with a success identity to have, as a close and personal friend, someone who is a known criminal, felon, heroin addict, and so forth.
People with success identities tend to compete constructively, meeting and seeking new chal-lenges. Also, they tend to reinforce one another’s successes. On the other hand, people with failure identities find facing the real world to be uncom-fortable and anxiety-producing, and therefore choose either to withdraw, to distort reality, or to ignore reality.
Comments on Glasser’s Theories on IdentityGlasser is undoubtedly accurate that every child/adolescent needs to receive “love” and a sense that they are “worthwhile” in order to develop a success identity. In fact, it is also important that every adult receive love and someone to convey that are worth-while. Many parents simply do not have the resources (emotionally or financially) to convey sufficient “love” and “worth” to their children. Therefore, “it takes a village to raise a child.” There are a number of established programs to help convey “love” and “worth”, such as Big Brothers/Big Sisters, Boys and Girls clubs, Special Olympics, and Youth mentor-ing programs in schools. In a very real sense every
teacher, adult friend, and adult relative should have the value system of doing what they can to convey “love” and “worth” to children/adolescents, and to the adults they interact with.
LO 2 Examine Race Culture, Ethnicity, and Identity Development
Questions might be raised regard-ing the extent to which Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories apply to all people. This includes various racial and eth-nic groups. For instance, some cultures emphasize respect for and deference to older family members. Young people
are expected to conform until they too become older and “wiser.” To what extent, then, is it important for each individual to struggle to achieve a strikingly unique and independent personality? Must this particular aspect of behavior be stressed to a great extent? Or should the ability to assume a strong identification with the family and cultural group be given precedence?
Approximately one-third of adolescents in the United States belong to an ethnic group that is a racial or ethnic “minority,” which, of course, in-cludes such groups as African Americans, Native Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). It is very important that these young people establish an ethnic identity along with their individual identity (Hendricks, 2005; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2014; Phinney, 2005). This involves identifying with their ethnic group, feeling that they belong, and appreciating their cultural heritage. Older adolescents are more likely to have established an ethnic identity than are younger ones (French, Seidman, Allen, & Aber, 2006). The former appar-ently have had more time to explore aspects of their culture, develop their cognitive ability, and think about who they are.
Phinney (1989) suggests a parallel development for children from diverse ethnic groups that coin-cides with Marcia’s four coping strategies for iden-tity development. A person with a diffused identity demonstrates little or no involvement with his or her ethnic and cultural heritage and may be unaware of or disinterested in cultural issues. A person with
EP 2a EP 2c
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3 3 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 7.1
lesbian and gay adolescents: the need for empowermentLesbian and gay adolescents in this culture suffer even more extreme obstacles to identity development than do their heterosexual peers. Perhaps their biggest obstruction is the constant oppression of homophobia. Homophobia is an extreme and irrational fear and hatred for lesbian and gay people simply because they are lesbian and gay. (Chapter 13 addresses sexual orientation and homophobia in much greater detail.) Homophobia and the oppressive reactions of others to homosexuality isolate lesbian and gay youth. On the one hand, lesbian and gay adolescents are trying to establish individual identities, just as heterosexual adolescents are. On the other hand, lesbian and gay youth are severely discouraged from expressing and establishing their sexual identities. The question that should be raised is, To what extent do Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories concerning identity development apply to these young people? Do these theories go far enough to explain the serious crises lesbian and gay people go through?
Lesbian and gay youth often experience extreme isolation (Miller, 2008; Morrow, 2006, 2008; Papalia & Feldman, 2012; Santrock, 2012b). “Alienation from the traditional church’s teachings, lack of access to gay-friendly counseling services, being privy to a barrage of hostile comments about ‘fags’ and ‘bull-dykes,’ feeling displeasure from one’s family—all combine to close the avenues to much needed social support” (van Wormer, Wells, & Boes, 2000, p. 48). Coming out is the process of a person’s acknowledging publicly that he or she is gay or lesbian. If a young person comes out, he or she is often ostracized and demeaned. On the other hand, if young people cautiously hide their true feelings and identity, they risk depression, avoidance behaviors such as drug or alcohol abuse, and rebellious acting out, such as running away or truancy.
Social work practitioners should be especially sensitive to the issues facing lesbian and gay adolescents. There are at least ten suggestions for helping and empowering lesbian and gay youth (Barret & Logan, 2002):
1. Evaluate your own homophobic attitudes. Strive to develop a caring, empathic, nonjudgmental perspective that can be communicated to lesbian and gay clients. What stereotypes do you harbor? What do you personally feel about sexuality and sexual identity? How comfortable do you feel with people who have a sexual orientation different than your own?
2. Become knowledgeable about the needs and issues of lesbian and gay adolescents.
3. Understand that adolescence is a time for exploration of one’s sexual identity. “Many sexual minority youth don’t crystallize their sexual identity until late adolescence, and same-sex sexual behavior does not necessarily cement sexual orientation. For example, boys may engage in group masturbation, competing to see who can have an orgasm first, and girls may be very affectionate with each other, holding hands, walking with their arms around each other, and even kissing. This does not necessarily mean they are gay or lesbian” (p. 138).
4. Confront insulting, offensive, and belittling comments. Challenge adolescent peers when they use name-calling and make comments that reflect stereotypes. Educate people about facts, and help them understand what cruel effects myths and homophobic treatment can have on lesbian and gay people.
5. Provide accurate information about sexuality, sexual orientation, and safe sexual behavior.
6. Never assume that a person is heterosexual. A young woman’s significant other just might be a girlfriend, not a boyfriend.
7. Advocate for the rights of lesbian and gay people when they are being violated.
8. Have resources about sexual orientation on hand, or advocate for schools to make them available. These may include books, articles, DVDs. CDs, or websites.
9. Help lesbian and gay youth become connected with others of their own sexual orientation. Many cities have helplines, support groups, speakers’ bureaus, and activities available for lesbian and gay young people.
10. As a social worker, you can help lesbian and gay youth navigate through the coming-out process. Such youth may need help answering a variety of questions: Should they come out or not? What should they say? Whom should they tell? How will people react?
In summary, it appears that Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories have only limited relevance for lesbian and gay identity development. The theories can be applied to a certain extent; they indicate that all young people go through an identity crisis. However, they do little to focus on the special issues of lesbian and gay young people.
It is up to you as a social worker to scrutinize theories closely and use what you can from them. However, it is just as important to recognize limitations of theories.
foreclosed identity has explored his or her cultural background to a minor extent. However, feelings about ethnic identity are vague. He or she most likely simply adopts the ideas of parents or other relatives without giving them much thought. Someone with
a moratorium identity displays an active pursuit of ethnic identity. This state reflects an ethnic identity crisis. Finally, a person who has achieved an ethnic identity has struggled with its meaning and come to conclusions regarding how this ethnic identity is an
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 31
integral part of his or her life. Cross and Fhagen-Smith (1996) summarize how Phinney’s model re-lates to ethnic identity development:
The. . . model states that ethnic and racial minorities enter adolescence with poorly developed ethnic identities (diffusion) or with an identity “given” to them by their parents (foreclosure). They may sink into an identity crisis, during which the conflicts and challenges associated with their minority status are sorted out (moratorium), and should all go well, they achieve an ethnic identity that is positive and gives high salience to ethnicity (achieved ethnicity). (p. III)
Moratorium is reflected in the thoughtful words of a Mexican American adolescent who stated, “I want to know what we do and how our culture is different from others. Going to festivals and cul-tural events helps me to learn more about my own culture and about myself ” (Phinney, 1989, p. 44). Likewise, an Asian American teen describes his feelings about his ethnic identity achievement: “I have been born Filipino and am bora to be Filipino. . . I’m here in America, and people of many different cultures are here, too. So I don’t consider myself only Filipino, but also American” (Phinney, 1989, p. 44).
An Alternative Model of Racial and Cultural Identity DevelopmentAs an alternative approach to understanding racial and cultural identity development, Howard-Hamilton and Frazier (2005) describe the five-phase Racial/Cultural Identity Development Model (R/CID) ini-tially developed by Sue and Sue (1990). To some degree, this model parallels the stages proposed by Marcia, but it centers on racial and cultural identity development. Stages range from having little or no development of ethnic and cultural identity to having complete integration of such identity. The model asks: “(a) who do you identify with and why; (b) what minor-ity cultural attitudes and beliefs do you accept or reject and why; (c) what dominant cultural attitudes and be-liefs do you accept or reject and why; and (d) how do your current attitudes and beliefs affect your interac-tion with other minorities and people of the dominant culture?” (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, p. 78). R/CID proposes that people progress through the fol-lowing five stages to establish an integrated racial or cultural identity (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, pp. 78–82; Sue & Sue, 2008, pp. 242–252):
1. Conformity stage. During this stage, people iden-tify closely with the dominant white society. “Physical and cultural characteristics that are
It is very important that young people establish an ethnic and cultural identity along with their individual identity. This involves identifying with their racial and ethnic group, feeling that they belong, and appreciating their cultural heritage. Here, Native American Blackfoot children participate in cultural events.
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3 32 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
common to the individual’s racial or cultural group are perceived negatively and as something to be avoided, denied, or changed. In this stage, the person may attempt to mimic ‘White’ speech patterns, dress, and goals. A person at this stage has low internal self-esteem” (Howard-Hamilton & Frazier, 2005, p. 79).
2. Dissonance stage. Usually initiated by some cri-sis or negative experience, the person during this stage “becomes aware that racism does exist, and that not all aspects of minority or majority cul-ture are good or bad. For the first time, the in-dividual begins to entertain thoughts of possible positive attributes” of his or her own culture and “a sense of pride in self ” (p. 79). Suspicion about the values inherent in the dominant culture grows.
3. Resistance and immersion stage. “Movement into this stage is characterized by the resolution of the conflicts and confusions that occurred in the previous stage” (p. 79). The person’s aware-ness of social issues grows along with a growing appreciation of his or her own culture. “A large amount of anger and hostility is also directed to-ward White society. There in turn is a feeling of dislike and distrust for all members of the domi-nant group” (p. 80).
4. Introspection stage. During this stage, the individ-ual “discovers that this level of intensity of feel-ings is psychologically draining and does not allow time to devote energy into understanding one’s ra-cial/cultural group; the individual senses the need for positive self-definition and a proactive sense of awareness. A feeling of disconnection emerges with minority group views that may be rigid. Group views may start to conflict with individual views. . . The person experiences conflict because she or he discovers there are many aspects of American culture that are desirable and functional, yet the confusion lies in how to incorporate these elements into the minority culture” (pp. 80–81).
5. Integrative awareness stage. Persons of color in this stage “have developed an inner sense of se-curity and can appreciate various aspects of their culture that make them unique. Conflicts and discomforts experienced in the previous stage are not resolved, hence greater control and flexibility are attained. Individuals in this stage recognize there are acceptable and unacceptable aspects of all cultures and that it is important for them to accept or reject aspects of a culture that are not
considered desirable to them. Attitudes and be-liefs toward self are self-appreciating. A positive self-image and a feeling of self-worth emerge. An integrated concept of racial pride in identity and culture also develops. The individual sees himself or herself as a unique person who belongs to a specific minority group, a member of a larger so-ciety, and a member of the human race” (p. 81). The person begins to view those in the dominant culture in a selective manner, allowing trust and relationships to develop with those who denounce the oppression of minority groups.
Communities and Schools Can Strengthen Racial and Cultural Identity Development for AdolescentsA positive social environment that celebrates cul-tural strengths can enhance the development of a positive I racial and cultural identity and pride (Delgado, 1998a, 1998b, 2000b, 2007). Both schools and the community-at-large can stress cultural strengths of resident groups. School curricula can have relevant historical and cultural content inte-grated throughout. Assignments can focus on learn-ing and appreciating cultural strengths. “A social studies teacher, for example, might assign a student to interview an elder member of his or her family or community about life in his or her place of origin as part of a lesson on ethnic origins” (Delgado, 1998a, p. 210). Schools and recreational facilities can de-velop programs that emphasize cultural pride and help adolescents “come to terms with their newly developing [racial and cultural] identities as indi-viduals and as participants in an increasingly mul-ticultural society while preserving essential links to their history, families, and culture” (Delgado, 1998b, p. 213).
For example, one such program, called Nuevo Puente (New Bridge), was designed initially to ad-dress substance abuse by Puerto Rican youth. Staff developed an educational curriculum
that involved obtaining input from all sectors of the Puerto Rican community. Major content areas were identified through. . . [a survey,]. . . interviews, focus groups, meetings, and discussions with community leaders, parents, and educators. [A focus group (discussed in Chapter 8) is a specially assembled collection of people who respond
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 3 3
through a semi-structured or structured discussion to the concerns and interests of the person, group, or organization that invited the participants.]
The curriculum included knowledge development and skills building that were culturally relevant for Puerto Rican youths. Participants received 72 hours of training over a seven-month period in cultural pride (Puerto Rican history, values, culture, arts, and traditions); group leadership skills (recruiting and leading groups); self-sufficiency and self-determination; communication and relationship skills (conflict resolution and identifying situations that lead to violence and other risk-taking behaviors); [and] strategies to deal with substance abuse (increased awareness of alcohol and other drugs). . .
As a whole, the curriculum had a significant impact on the participants. However, the greatest effect was achieved by the module on identity and culture, which was measured by the participants’ interest and pride in speaking Spanish; awareness of Puerto Rican cuisine, history, geography, and folklore; willingness to participate in Puerto Rican folk dancing; interest in and willingness to celebrate Puerto Rican holidays; interest in learning the lyrics to the Puerto Rican anthem; and eagerness to learn about their ancestors. (Delgado, 1998b, p. 217)
Community festivals such as African American Fest or German Fest can provide other avenues through which community residents of all ages can learn about and appreciate various facets of their and others’ cultures. Such events can celebrate his-tory, arts, crafts, music, and food.
The following explains how murals in urban set-tings can portray cultural symbols and honor ethnic traditions:
A mural is an art form that is expressed on a building’s walls as opposed to a canvas. . . Murals represent a community effort to utilize cultural symbols as a way of creating an impact internally and externally. Murals should not be confused with graffiti. A mural represents an artistic impression that is not only sanctioned by a community, but often commissioned by it. . . and invariably involve a team of artists. Graffiti, on the other hand, represent an artistic impression. . . that is individual centered and manifested on subway trains, doors, mailboxes, buses, public settings, and other less
significant locations. Their content generally focuses on the trials and tribulations associated with urban living, issues of oppression, or simply a “signature” of the artist. . .
Murals represent a much higher level of organi-zation, and the community often participates in their design and painting; their location within the community also reflects the degree of community sanctioning—those that are prominently located enjoy a high degree of community acceptance, whereas those in less prominent locations do not. . . Murals provide communities of color with an important outlet for expressing their cultural pride. . .
Among Latino groups, for example, murals allow subgroups to express the uniqueness of their history and culture. (Delgado, 2000a, pp. 78–80)
“Pre-Columbian themes, intended to remind Chicanos of their noble origins, are common. There are motifs from the Aztec. . . [ancient manuscripts], gods from the Aztec [temples and mythology,]. . . allusions to the Spanish conquest and images of the Virgin of Guadalupe, a cherished Mexican icon” (Treguer, 1992, p. 23, cited in Delgado, 1998b, p. 80).
LO 3 Explore Moral DevelopmentYoung adulthood is filled with avid quests for inti-mate relationships and other major commitments involving career and life goals. A parallel pursuit is the formulation of a personal set of moral values. Morality involves a set of principles regarding what is right and what is wrong. Often, these principles are not clearly defined in black or white, but involve various shades of gray. There is no one absolute answer. For example, is the death penalty right or wrong? Is it good or bad to have sexual intercourse before marriage?
Moral issues range from very major to minor day-to-day decisions. Although moral development can take place throughout life, it is especially critical during adolescence. These are the times when people gain the right to make independent decisions and choices. Often the values developed during this stage remain operative for life. Explored here are theo-retical perspectives proposed by Kohlberg and by Gilligan, in addition to a social learning outlook on moral development.
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3 3 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Moral Development: Kohlberg’s TheoryLawrence Kohlberg (1963, 1968, 1969, 1981a, 1981b) has proposed a series of three levels, and six stages, through which people progress as they develop their moral framework. These six stages are clustered within three distinct levels, as shown in the Concept Summary box below.
Level 1: The Preconventional or Premoral LevelThe first level, the preconventional or premoral level, is characterized by giving precedence to self-interest. People usually experience this level from ages 4 to 10. Moral decisions are based on exter-nal standards. Behavior is governed by whether a child will receive a reward or punishment. The first stage in this level is based on avoiding punishment. Children do what they are told in order to avoid negative consequences. The second stage focuses on rewards instead of punishment. In other words, children do the “right” thing in order to receive a reward or compensation. Sometimes this involves
Ethical Questions 7.2
EP 1
What are the major principles in your personal code of morality? How would you answer the following moral questions regarding what is right and what is wrong: Should there be a death penalty for monstrous crimes and, if so, how monstrous? Why or why not? Should there be national health insurance under which all people receive medical services regardless of their level of wealth? If so, who should pay for it? Should corporal punishment be allowed in schools? Why or why not? Should prayer be allowed in schools? Why or why not?
CONCEPT SUMMARY
Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development
Level/Stage Description
Level 1: Preconventional (self-interest)
stage 1: Punishment and obedience orientation
stage 2: naive instrumental hedonism
controls are external. Behavior is governed by receiving rewards or punishments.
Decisions concerning what is good or bad are made in order to avoid receiving punishment.
Rules are obeyed in order to receive rewards. often favors are exchanged.
Level 2: Conventional(Role conformity)
stage 3: “good boy/girl morality”
stage 4: authority-maintaining morality
the opinions of others become important. Behavior is governed by conforming to social expectations.
good behavior is considered to be what pleases others. there is a strong desire to please and gain the approval of others.
the belief in law and order is strong. Behavior conforms to law and higher authority. social order is important.
Level 3: Postconventional(self-accepted moral Principles)
stage 5: morality of contract, of individual rights, and of democratically accepted law
stage 6: morality of individual principles and conscience
moral decisions are finally internally controlled. morality involves higher-level principles beyond law and even beyond self-interest.
laws are considered necessary. however, they are subject to ratio-nal thought and interpretation. community welfare is important.
Behavior is based on internal ethical principles. Decisions are made according to what is right rather than what is written into law.
Source: Adapted from Kohlberg (1968, 1981a, 1981b).
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 35
an exchange of favors: “I’ll scratch your back if you’ll scratch mine.”
Level 2: The Conventional LevelLevel 2 of Kohlberg’s theory is the conventional level, in which moral thought is based on conforming to conventional roles. Frequently, this level occurs from ages 10 to 13. There is a strong desire to please oth-ers and to receive social approval. Although moral standards have begun to be internalized, they are still based on what others dictate, rather than on what is personally decided.
Within Level 2, stage 3 focuses on gaining the ap-proval of others. Good relationships become very im-portant. Stage 4, “authority-maintaining morality,” emphasizes the need to adhere to law. Higher authori-ties are generally respected. “Law and order” are con-sidered necessary in order to maintain the social order.
Level 3: The Postconventional LevelLevel 3, the postconventional level, involves develop-ing a moral conscience that goes beyond what others say. At this level, people contemplate laws and ex-pectations and decide on their own what is right and what is wrong. They become autonomous, indepen-dent thinkers. Behavior is based on principles instead of laws. This level progresses beyond selfish concerns. The needs and well-being of others become very im-portant. At this level, true morality is achieved.
Within Level 3, stage 5 involves adhering to so-cially accepted laws and principles. Law is considered good for the general public welfare. However, laws are subject to interpretation and change. Stage 6 is the ultimate attainment. During this stage, one becomes free of the thoughts and opinions expressed by oth-ers. Morality is completely internalized. Decisions are based on one’s personal conscience, transcending laws and regulations. Examples of people who attained this level include Martin Luther King Jr. and Gandhi.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Kohlberg’s TheoryMany questions have been raised concerning the va-lidity and application of Kohlberg’s theory (Helwig & Turiel, 2011; Killin & Smetana, 2008; Santrock, 2016; Walker & Frimer, 2011). For one thing, Kohl-berg places primary emphasis on how people think, not what they do. Presidents and kings talk about the loftiest moral standards, but what they do is often
another matter. Richard Nixon espoused high moral standards but was forced to resign after his cover-up of the Watergate break-in and theft of Democratic Party documents was brought to light. Many times, difficult moral decisions must be made in crisis situa-tions. If you find yourself in a burning building with a crowd of people, how much effort will you expend to save others before yourself ? What is the discrep-ancy between what you think is right and what you would really do in such a situation?
A second criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that it is culturally biased (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; Santrock, 2012a). Even Kohlberg (1978) himself has conceded that stage 6 may not apply across all cultures, societ-ies, and situations. Snarey (1987) studied research on moral development in 27 countries and found that Kohlberg’s schema does not incorporate the higher moral ideals that some cultures embrace. Examples of higher moral reasoning that would not be consid-ered such within Kohlberg’s framework include “prin-ciples of communal equity and collective happiness in Israel, the unity and sacredness of all life forms in India, and the relation of the individual to the com-munity in New Guinea” (Santrock, 2008, p. 361).
Moral Development and Women: Gilligan’s ApproachA major criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that virtu-ally all of the research on which it is based used only men as subjects. Gilligan (1982; Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988; Gilligan, Brown, & Rogers, 1990) maintains that women fare less well according to Kohlberg’s lev-els of moral development because they tend to view moral dilemmas differently than men do. Kohlberg’s theory centers on a justice perspective, in which each person functions independently and makes moral de-cisions on an individual basis (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Newman & Newman, 2012; Santrock, 2016, p. 231). In contrast, Gilligan maintains that women are more likely to adopt a “care perspective, which views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others” (Santrock, 2012a, p. 231). In other words, women tend to view morality in terms of personal situations.
Women often have trouble moving from a very personalized interpretation of morality to a focus on law and order. This bridge involves a generaliza-tion from the more personal aspects of what is right
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3 3 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and wrong (how individual moral decisions affect one’s own personal life) to morality within the larger, more impersonal society (how moral decisions, such as those instilled in law, affect virtually everyone). Kohlberg has been criticized because he has not taken into account the different orientation and life circumstances common to women.
Gilligan and her associates (Gilligan, 1982, 1996; Gilligan & Attanucci, 1988; Gilligan et al., 1990) reason that women’s moral development is often based on their personal interest and commitment to the good of others close to them. Frequently, this in-volves giving up or sacrificing one’s own well-being for others. Goodness and kindness are emphasized. This contrasts with a common male focus on as-sertively making decisions and exercising more rigid moral judgments.
Gilligan initially targeted 29 women who were re-ceiving pregnancy and abortion counseling. She pos-tulated that pregnancy was an area in women’s lives in which they could emphasize choice, yet it still was an intimate area to which they could relate. Gilligan interviewed the women concerning their pregnan-cies. She arrived at a sequence of moral levels that relate specifically to women. She found that women tend to view morality “based on an ethics of caring rather than a morality of justice” (Dacey, Travers, & Fiore, 2009, p. 248). She maintains that women’s perspective on right and wrong emphasizes interper-sonal relationships and the assumption of responsi-bility for the care and well-being of others close to them. This contrasts with Kohlberg’s more abstract view of morality as the determination of what is fair and right in a much more general sense.
Gilligan describes the following levels and transi-tions of moral development for women.
Level 1: Orientation to Personal SurvivalThis level focuses purely on the woman’s self-interest. The needs and well-being of others are not really considered. At this level, a woman focuses first on personal survival. What is practical and best for her is most important.
Transition 1: Transition from Person Selfishness to ResponsibilityThis first transition involves a movement in moral thought from consideration only of self to some con-sideration of the others involved. During this tran-sition, a woman comes to acknowledge the fact that she is responsible not only for herself but also for others, including the unborn. In other words, she be-gins to acknowledge that her choice will affect others.
Level 2: Goodness as Self-SacrificeLevel 2 involves putting aside one’s own needs and wishes. The well-being of other people becomes im-portant. The “good” thing to do is to sacrifice her-self so that others may benefit. A woman at this level feels dependent on what other people think. Often a conflict occurs between taking responsibility for her own actions and feeling pressure from others to make her decisions.
Transition 2: From Goodness to RealityDuring this transitional period, women begin to examine their situations more objectively. They draw away from depending on others to tell them what they should do.
Gilligan maintains that females’ sense of morality emphasizes personal relationships and the assumption of responsibility for the care and well-being of those close to them. Here, two close friends enjoy sweet treats together.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 37
Instead, they begin to take into account the well-being of everyone concerned, including themselves. Some of the concern for personal survival apparent in level 1 returns, but in a more objective manner.
Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolent ResponsibilityLevel 3 involves women thinking in terms of the re-percussions of their decisions and actions. At this level, a woman’s thinking has progressed beyond mere concern for what others will think about what she does. Rather, it involves accepting responsibility for making her own decisions. She places herself on an equal plane with others, weighs the various con-sequences of her potential actions, and accepts that she will be responsible for these consequences. The important principle operating here is that of mini-mizing hurt, both to herself and to others.
Gilligan’s sequence of moral development pro-vides a good example of how morality can be viewed from different perspectives. It is especially beneficial in emphasizing the different strengths manifested by men and women. The emphasis on feelings, such as direct concern for others, is just as important as the ability to decisively make moral judgments.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation, of Gilligan’s TheorySome research has established support for Gilligan’s proposed gender-based differences in moral reason-ing. For example, some studies have found that fe-males consider moral dilemmas concerning caring aspects of social relationships more important and a greater moral dilemma than males do (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004; Wark & Krebs, 2000). Another study found that girls were more likely than boys to use Gilligan’s caring-based approaches when ad-dressing dating predicaments (Weisz & Black, 2002).
However, yet another study found “that girls’ moral orientations are ‘somewhat more likely to focus on care for others than on abstract principles of jus-tice, but they can use both moral orientations when needed (as can boys. . .)’” (Blakemore, Berenbaum, & Liben, 2009, p. 132; cited in Santrock, 2012a, p. 231).
Other research has found that little if any differ-ence exists between the moral reasoning of men and women (Blakemore et al., 2009; Glover, 2001; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Walker, 1995; Wilson, 1995). One mega-analysis involved examining the results of 113 studies focusing on moral decision-making. Results question the accuracy of Gilligan’s belief in significant gender differences concerning moral devel-opment (Hyde, 2007; Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Jaffee & Hyde, 2000). This study found that the overall pic-ture revealed only small differences in how females and males made moral decisions. Although fe males were slightly more likely than males to use Gilligan’s caring-based approach instead of Kohlberg’s justice-based perspective, this disparity was larger in adolescence than adulthood. Whether caring- or justice-based ap-proaches were used depended more on the situation being evaluated. For example, both females and males were more likely to emphasize caring when addressing interpersonal issues and justice when assessing more global social issues.
Coon and Mitterer (2013) comment:
Indeed, both men and women may use caring and justice to make moral decisions. The moral yard-stick they use appears to depend on the situation they face (Work & Krebs, 1996). Just the same, Gilligan deserves credit for identifying a second major way in which moral choices are made. It can be argued that our best moral choices combine justice and caring, reason and emotion—which may be what we mean by wisdom. (Pasupathi & Staudinger, 2001, pp. 110–111)
Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development for Women
Level 1: orientation to personal survival
Transition 1: Transition from personal selfishness to responsibility
Level 2: goodness as self-sacrifice
Transition 2: From goodness to reality
Level 3: the morality of nonviolent responsibility
CONCEPT SUMMARY
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3 3 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Ethical Applications of Gilligan’s Theory to Client Situations
Social work has a sound foundation of professional values expressed in the National Association of Social Work-ers (NASW) Code of Ethics. Ethics involve making decisions about what is right and what is wrong. Ethics pro-
vide social workers with guidelines for practice with clients.
Gilligan emphasizes the relationship between responsibility and morality. People develop mor-ally as they gradually become more capable and willing to assume responsibility. Morality provides the basis for making ethical decisions. Gilligan “bases the highest stage of decision making on care for and sensitivity to the needs of others, on responsibility for others, and on nurturance” (Rhodes, 1985, p. 101). This principle is central to the NASW Code of Ethics. Gilligan’s theory can provide some general ethical guidelines to which we can aspire in our day-to-day practice with cli-ents. Social workers should strive to be sensitive to the needs of their clients. They should assume responsibility for effective practice with clients. Fi-nally, they should provide help and nurturance to meet their clients’ needs.
Moral Development: A Social Learning Theory PerspectiveSocial learning theorists including Albert Bandura (1991, 2002; Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Pas-torelli, & Regalia, 2001) apply many of the princi-ples of learning theory (discussed in Chapter 4) to moral actions. They
have been primarily interested in the behavioral component of morality—in what we actually do when faced with temptation or with an opportunity to behave prosocially. These theorists say that moral behavior is learned in the same way that other social behaviors are learned: through observational learning and reinforcement and punishment principles. They also consider moral behavior to be strongly influenced by situational factors—for example, by how closely a professor watches exam takers, by whether jewelry items are on the counter or behind glass in a department store. (Sigelman & Rider, 2012, p. 428)
EP 1
The social learning perspective, then, indicates that we gradually learn how to behave morally. Early on, young children receive reinforcement for behaving correctly and punishment for behaving incorrectly. They also see their parents and others as models for doing what is right or wrong. As children grow older, they gradually internalize these expectations and standards of conduct. Then as they encounter situations in which they must make moral decisions on how to behave, they use these internalized values. Additionally, as learning theory also predicts, they respond to the circumstances of the moment and the potential consequences they might encounter.
For example, the following example illustrates how social learning theory principles might be used to predict whether a teenager, arbitrarily called Waldo, will cheat on his upcoming math test. Social learning theory would focus on
the moral habits Waldo has learned, the expectation he has formed about the probable consequences of his actions, his ability to self-regulate his behavior, and his ultimate behavior [choice]. If Waldo’s parents have consistently reinforced him when he has behaved morally and punished him when he has misbehaved; if he has been exposed to models of morally acceptable behavior rather than brought up in the company of liars, cheaters, and thieves; and if he has well-developed self-regulatory mechanisms that cause him to take responsibility for his actions rather than to disengage morally, he is likely to behave in morally acceptable ways. Yet Bandura and other social learning theorists believe in the power of situational influences and predict that Waldo may still cheat on the math test if he sees his classmates cheating and getting away with it or if he is under pressure to get a B in math. (Sigelman & Rider, 2006, pp. 364–365)
Ethical Questions 7.3
EP 1
What do you think is the moral thing for Waldo to do concerning his upcoming math test? What do you think Waldo would do? if you were Waldo, to what extent would you be tempted to cheat on the math test? What aspects in your upbringing would influence your decision?
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 39
LO 4 Review Fowler’s Theory of Faith DevelopmentChapter 3 defined spirituality as “one’s values, be-liefs, mission, awareness, subjectivity, experience, sense of purpose and direction, and a kind of striv-ing toward something greater than oneself. It may or may not include a deity. . . Religion, on the other hand,. . . refers to a set of beliefs and practices of an organized religious institution” (e.g., organized churches under Roman Catholic, Muslim, or Meth-odist denominations) (Frame, 2003, p. 3).
Spirituality and religion are two separate con-cepts. Frame (2003) explains:
M a n y f o l l o w e r s o f r e l i g i o n f i n d t h a t i t s organization, doctrine, rituals, programs, and c o m m u n i t y a re m e a n s t h ro u g h wh i ch t h e i r spirituality is supported and enhanced. Likewise, many persons who think of themselves as spiritual, rather than religious, find that the institutions of religion interfere with their private experiences of spirituality. It is possible, therefore, for these two constructs to be related in a variety of ways and played out differently in individual lives. For example, a person may care very deeply about the meaning of life, may be very committed to her purpose and direction, may even engage in spiritual practices such as meditation, and yet not be involved in a religious organization. Thus, one may be spiritual without being religious. Another person may be a member of a synagogue, keep a kosher kitchen, be faithful to Torah, and never really take these Jewish practices to heart. He may go through the motions of being religious without being spiritual. Yet another person may be an active member of a church, attend worship regularly, read the Bible, and pray, finding great inspiration in these activities and support through the institutional church. Therefore, one may be religious and spiritual simultaneously. (p. 4)
(Chapter 15 discusses several predominant reli-gions, including Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism, more thoroughly.)
Spirituality is an important aspect of human di-versity. It shapes major dimensions of many people’s lives and can provide a significant source of strength. As a later section explains, spirituality can serve as a major source of empowerment that social workers must address.
James Fowler (1981) proposed a theory of faith development in which people progress through seven stages that focus
on the formation and transformation of faith throughout the life cycle. . . [B]y faith Fowler meant ‘the pattern of our relatedness to self, others, and our world in light of our relatedness to ultimacy’ (1996, p. 21). ‘Ultimacy’ refers to that which a person gives a sense of first importance and greatest profundity in orienting his or her life with fundamental values, beliefs, and meanings. . . [F]aith may take religious or nonreligious forms. Fowler depicted faith as a universal aspect of human nature that gives coherence and meaning to life, connects individuals together in shared concerns, relates people to a larger cosmic frame of reference, and enables us to deal with suffering and mortality. (Canda & Furman, 2010, p. 256; Fowler, 1981, 1996)
During each faith stage, an individual grows closer to a higher power and becomes more con-cerned about the welfare of other people.
Fowler’s Seven Stages of Faith DevelopmentFowler based his seven-stage theory on “a study conducted from 1972 to 1981 to determine how people viewed their personal history, how they worked through problems to solutions, and how they formed moral and religious commitments. He and his collaborators conducted 359 in-depth inter-views with mostly White men and women, primar-ily Christian and Jewish, ranging in age from early childhood to past age 61” (Robbins, Chatterjee, & Canda, 2012, p. 283).
The following explains each of the seven stages.
Stage 1: Primal or Undifferentiated Faith (Birth to 2 Years)All people begin to develop their views of faith and the world from scratch. Infants learn early on whether their environment is safe or not, whether they can trust or not. Are they being cared for in warm, safe, secure family environments? Or are they being hurt, neglected, and abused? People begin to develop their use of language to express thought and distinguish between themselves and others. They start to develop relationships and ideas about what those relationships mean.
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3 4 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Stage 2: Intuitive-Projective Faith (Ages 2 to 6)Children aged 2 to 6 continue developing their abil-ity to glean meaning from their environments. What children are exposed to in terms of spiritual lan-guage and experiences is what they conceptualize about their faith. During stage 2, children are ego-centric and manifest preoperational thought pat-terns. Their view of faith and religion lacks in-depth conceptualization and application to life experi-ences. Their view of faith is that it is out there some-place; it is whatever they’re exposed to. For instance, to Herman, whose parents adhere to strict Wiscon-sin Synod Lutheran Church beliefs, faith is going to church, singing hymns, attending Sunday school, and saying bedtime prayers every night. If asked where God is, he says, “Everywhere,” because that’s what he’s been told.
Stage 3: Mythic-Literal Faith (Ages 6 to 12)Development of conceptual thought continues over this period. Stories are especially important as ways to help children develop their thinking about life and relationships. Individuals can be deeply moved by dramatic representations and spiritual symbolism, such as religious ceremonies. The concrete opera-tions period helps children distinguish between what is real and what is not. During this stage, children think more seriously about aspects related to faith, although their “beliefs are literal and one dimen-sional”; Frame (2003) explains:
People in this stage often develop a concept of God. . . as a cosmic ruler who acts with fairness and moral reciprocity (Fowler, 1987). Persons in the mythic-literal stage often assume that God rewards goodness and punishes evil. They might exhibit a kind of perfectionism in their efforts to be rewarded for their goodness. On the other hand, they could be self-abasing, assuming that because they have been abused or neglected by significant others, they are inherently bad and will be punished. (p. 41)
Stage 4: Synthetic-Conventional Faith (Ages 12 and Older)During this stage, individuals develop their abil-ity to conceptualize and apply information in new ways. They are exposed to much more of the world through social, school, and media experiences. They no longer perceive the world as literally as they did in stage 3. On the one hand, people begin to think
more abstractly and, in some ways, view the world from new perspectives. On the other hand, they strive to conform. They have not yet critically eval-uated the fundamental basis of their faith. Rather, they adhere to conventional ideology. Duffey (2005) reflects on stage 4:
Faith is seen as that which brings people together and provides a unifying concept and sense of belonging for family, congregation, and society. For many, this is the terminal stage of development. In this stage, individuals do not acknowledge differences in faith practices of others and view their faith as the “one right, true, only way.” An example of this stage can be seen in adolescents who form groups based on fitting in: if you wear these clothes, listen to this type of music, like these people, etc., then you are part of the group. At this stage, any image of deity is seen as a companion and ally. Faith is rule bound and hierarchical with no questioning of the group’s norms and beliefs. (pp. 323–324)
Stage 5: Individuative-Reflective Faith (Early Adulthood and Beyond)Critical thinking about the meaning of life charac-terizes stage 5. “The focus of faith moves away from being viewed as the unifying concept of the group and more as making sense of the individual” (Duffey, 2005, p. 324). People confront conflicts in values and ideas, and they strive to establish their individualized belief system. For example, a young woman will seri-ously consider the extent to which her own personal beliefs coincide with conventional religious practices and beliefs. If her church condemns abortion, does she agree or not? If her church denies membership to lesbian and gay people, does she support this or not? Stage 5 marks the construction of a more de-tailed internal spiritual belief system that reflects an individual’s critical evaluation of the physical and spiritual world. “This stage may occur in those who stay within organized religious practice, as well as in those who leave” (Duffey, 2005, p. 324).
Stage 6: Conjunctive Faith (Midlife and Beyond)Only one-sixth of all respondents in Fowler’s study reached stage 6, conjunctive faith, and then never before age 30. The concept that characterizes this phase is integration. Individuals have confronted the
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 41
conflicts between their own views and conventional ones and have accepted that such conflicts exist. They have integrated their own beliefs into their per-ception of the physical and spiritual universe. They have accepted that diversity and opposites character-ize life. Good exists along with evil. Happiness dwells beside sadness. Strength subsists alongside weakness. Spiritual beliefs assume a deeper perspective. Duffey (2005) explains: “The individual becomes more open to religious and spiritual traditions different from one’s own. An example of someone at this stage is a person willing to respect the validity of another’s ‘truth’ even when it contradicts one’s own, while si-multaneously being able to communicate one’s own authentic ‘truth’” (p. 324). Frame (2003) notes that people “develop a passion for justice that is beyond the claims of race, class, culture, nation, or reli-gious community. These convictions enable people in the conjunctive stage to lay down their defenses and to tolerate differences in belief while staying firmly grounded in their own personal faith systems” (pp. 42–43).
Stage 7: Universalizing Faith (Midlife and Beyond)Universalizing faith is characterized by selfless com-mitment to justice on behalf of others. In stage 6, people confront discrepancies and unfairness, inte-grating them into their perception of how the world operates. However, the self remains the primary refer-ence point. An individual accepts and appreciates his own vulnerability, and seeks his own continued exis-tence and salvation. Stage 7, however, reflects a deeply spiritual concern for the greater good, the benefit of the masses, above oneself. Such commitment may involve becoming a martyr on behalf of or devoting one’s life to some great cause at the expense of per-sonal pleasure and well-being. Only a tiny minority of people may reach this point. Martin Luther King Jr., Mother Teresa, and Joan of Arc are examples.
Critical Thinking: Evaluation of Fowler’s TheoryFowler provides a logically organized theory con-cerning the development of faith. It follows Piaget’s proposed levels of cognitive development, advanc-ing from the more concrete to the more abstract. It makes sense that people increase their ability to think critically, integrate more difficult concepts, and develop deeper, more committed ideas and beliefs as their lives and thinking progress.
However, at least three criticisms of the theory come to mind. First, the sample on which it was based is very limited in terms of race and religious orientation. Questions can be raised regarding the extent to which it can be applied universally to non-Christian faiths worldwide.
Second, concepts of human diversity, oppres-sion, and discrimination are not taken into account. There is an inherent assumption that all people start out with a clean slate. In reality, some are born richer, some poorer, some in high-tech societies, oth-ers in third-world environments. To what extent do people’s exposure to more ideas and greater access to the world’s activities and resources affect the de-velopment of faith? Are all people provided an equal opportunity to develop faith? Do oppression and discrimination affect one’s spirituality and the evolu-tion of faith?
A third criticism is the difficulty of applying Fowler’s theory to macro situations. How does the development of faith from an individual perspec-tive fit into the overall scheme of the macro environ-ment? How does faith development potentially affect organizational, community, and political life?
Ethical Questions 7.4
EP 1
What are your personal beliefs about spirituality and religion? To what extent do you believe all people should also hold your views?
Social Work Practice and Empowerment Through Spiritual Development
Spirituality rises above concern over worldly things such as possessions and expands consciousness to a realm be-yond the physical environment. It is a “universal aspect of human culture” (Canda, 1989; Cowley & Derezotes, 1994) that concerns “developing a
sense of meaning, purpose, and morality” (Canda, 1989, p. 39). It can provide people with strength to withstand pain and guidance to determine what life paths to take.
EP 2a EP 2c
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3 42 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Determining a client’s spiritual beliefs and pos-sible membership in an organized religion can lead to various means of empowerment. “Religious and spiritual organizations can be the source of support for clients… because they can provide a sense of belonging, safety, purpose, structure, and oppor-tunities for giving and receiving service” (Frame, 2003, p. 94).
Boyle, Hull, Mather, Smith, and Farley (2009) ex-pand upon the significance of spirituality for social workers:
Social work and other helping professions have begun to recognize the immense power these beliefs can have over the ability of clients to withstand trauma and tragedy when things look the darkest. . . Spirituality helps some people make sense out of a sometimes senseless world. For others, it is part of an attempt to better understand themselves and to answer the question, “What is my purpose?”. . .
Spirituality and religious beliefs tend to play even more crucial roles in the lives of clients who are coping with critical events such as a terminal illness, a bereavement, or serious health issues. In these and similar situations, social workers should be comfortable raising the topic of religion or spirituality with clients. Likewise, social workers have come to recognize the importance of these issues for many ethnic and minority groups. For many such groups, the church and religion play a major role in their everyday lives and in efforts to bring about institutional and environmental change. . .
Social workers should be alert to the fact that their clients may have significant religious or spiritual beliefs and values and be familiar with the commonalities across various religious doctrines. At the very least, the practitioner should ask clients about this area and listen carefully when clients identify their religion or other spiritual beliefs as a coping resource. Failure to explore this area prevents social workers from understanding a major area of strength for many clients and a potential area for some others. (pp. 297–298)
However, as important as it is to consider spiri-tuality as a potential strength, it is just as important for social workers not to impose their own values and spiritual beliefs on clients. Van Hook, Hugen, and Aguilar (2001) explain:
Incorporating spiritual and religious diversity into social work practice raises a challenging question for each social worker of faith: How do I hold my truth to be The Truth, when everyone perceives the truth differently? The professional challenge is to learn to listen intently to another person’s explanation of reality, even when that worldview differs significantly from one’s own. As practitioners, we need not share a client’s view of reality, nor even agree with it. But if we are willing to listen, we will come away knowing clients in new ways—and this knowledge and awareness will not only increase our own cultural sensitivity but also help us demonstrate a genuine respect for clients by truly honoring their religious and spiritual perspective. (p. 6)
Social workers may encounter a wide range of situations involving clients’ spirituality that require careful thought regarding how to proceed ethically. For instance, Roeder (2002) cites the following prac-tice situation:
You work for a faith-based organization that offers services to teens who are pregnant, in hopes of preparing them for motherhood. You are the first social worker ever to be hired onto the staff, which is composed mostly of religiously trained persons and committed volunteers. During your first staff meeting in this organization, you find that staff are reviewing a policy that suggest “all who work with clients should pray with them to develop their relationship with God.” During the meeting you are asked for your input on this policy. What would you say in response? (p. II)
Spotlight 7.2 discusses the current outlook con-cerning research on practice effectiveness and spirituality.
Significant Issues and Life Events: Assertiveness and SuicideEach phase of life tends to be characterized by is-sues that receive considerable attention and concern. Two issues that command special attention as they relate to adolescence and youth are assertiveness and suicide. Although these issues continue to elicit con-cern with respect to any age group, they have an es-pecially critical quality for those whose lives are just beginning. Lives marked by either docile meekness and nonassertiveness, on the one hand, or pushy,
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 4 3
self-serving aggression, on the other, can be damag-ing and nonproductive. Young lives terminated at an early age represent tragic and regrettable losses of potential.
Each of these issues may be viewed from either a psychological or a social perspective. They will arbi-trarily be addressed in this chapter, which focuses on the psychological aspects of adolescence.
LO 5 Assess Empowerment Through Assertiveness and Assertiveness TrainingAssertiveness involves behavior that is straight-forward, yet not offensive. The behavior can be either verbal or nonverbal. Assertiveness involves taking into account both your own rights and the rights of others. It sounds simple, but for many
people appropriate assertiveness is difficult to mas-ter. For instance, consider the two people sitting in front of you in a movie theater who are talk-ing loudly. How should you react? Should you ig-nore them even though it’s the scariest portion of the latest horror film? Should you scream, “Shut up!”? Or should you tap one of them gently on the shoulder and politely ask the person to please be quiet?
Your best friend asks to borrow your car. Your friend emphasizes it’ll only be for one time and it’s needed for such an important reason. You happen to know that your friend is not a very good driver, has gotten two speeding tickets in the past six months, and sometimes drives after drinking. Should you say, “No way! You know what a horrible driver you are”? Should you say, “Sure”? Should you say, “Well, okay, I guess so”? Or should you say, “No. You know I don’t let other people drive my car. Would it help if I drive you somewhere?”
evidence-Based Practice and spiritualityThe social work profession and its accreditation standards emphasize the importance of employing evidence-based interventions, evaluating practice effectiveness, and using research results to improve service delivery (CSWE, 2015). Rubin and Babbie (2014) explain:
Evidence-based practice (EBP) is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available. But rather than rigidly constrict practitioner options, the EBP model encourages practitioners to integrate scientific evidence with their practice expertise and knowledge of the idiosyncratic circumstances bearing on specific practice decisions. (p. 28)
There has not been much empirical research in social work regarding the effectiveness of practices involving spirituality; however, research conducted in other helping professions in establishing positive relationships “between religious participation and well-being” (Canda, 2008, p. 416; Canda & Furman, 2010). Canda and Furman (2010) conclude that “empirical research is showing through hundreds of studies in several disciplines that positive sense of spiritual meaning and religious participation are related to reduced levels of depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and risk behaviors along with an increased sense of well-being and mutual support. . . Specific spiritually based practices, such as forgiveness,
meditation, and spiritually oriented cognitive-behavioral therapy are also showing promise” (p. 22). Other research results indicate that spiritual well-being is related to people’s ability to respond resiliently to sickness and other crises, and to lower incidences of family violence (Canda, 2008).
Canda and Furman (2010) reflect that
[t]he concept of spirituality includes certain quantifiable and measurable aspects (such as frequency of church attendance or level of self-assessed sense of meaning) [and]. . . various processes, experiences, and systems that are best explored through qualitative methods of observation (such as the subjective experience of meditation or the communal patterns of mutual support in religious groups). . . While we recognize the utility of the scientific method as it has derived from European and American cultures, we also respect the forms of knowledge and wisdom found among the elders, mentors, and adepts of religious traditions and culturally specific healing systems around the world We value understanding that comes from a convergence of sensory, rational, emotional, and intuitive ways of knowing. For a truly integral approach we need to combine inquiry approaches that address both the subjective and objective dimensions of individual and collective phenomena of spirituality (Wilber, 2006). (p. 23)
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 7.2
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3 4 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Often it’s difficult to look at a situation objec-tively and take the feelings and needs of all con-cerned into account. Often, it’s especially difficult for adolescents and young people. On the one hand, they are still getting to know themselves and estab-lishing their own identities. On the other hand, they want to fit in socially and respond to the feelings of others.
Assertiveness involves specific skills that can be taught. This, of course, is referred to as assertiveness training. Adolescents and young people may find as-sertiveness skills especially valuable as they decide how to react in new situations, especially when under social pressure. For example, they might struggle re-garding how to respond in sexual situations: What do I want to do versus what does my partner want to do? Or they might wonder about taking drugs: Everyone is doing it; what should I do? Here we will discuss, in more depth, the meaning of assertiveness and some concepts involved in assertiveness training.
Most people remember occasions when they wish they had been more assertive. Yet at those mo-ments, they felt very uncomfortable doing so. Many people have also experienced situations in which they “lost it,” and exploded in a loud burst of an-ger. An example is a newly married 22-year-old woman who is “at her wits’ end” with her husband’s best friend. He continues to make derogatory ra-cial slurs against almost anyone who is not white, of a certain religious group, and of European heri-tage. The young woman, a newly graduated social worker, tries everything she can think of to turn the friend’s comments off. She tries ignoring him. She tries to change the subject. Yet she doesn’t want to offend the man. After all, he is her husband’s best friend. Finally, something snaps and she screams, “I can’t stand it anymore. I think you’re a disgust-ing bigot. Just shut up!” This outburst does little for their relationship.
The Relevance of AssertivenessAssertiveness and assertiveness training are included here for three reasons. First, appropriate assertive-ness is an important skill to be acquired in adoles-cence. When someone uses an assertive approach, that person values both his or her own rights and the rights of others. Assertiveness is a critical aspect of establishing both a personal identity and a moral perspective toward other people.
A second reason for including assertiveness is its im-portance in working with clients. As a social work prac-titioner, you must recognize your own professional and personal rights in order to communicate effectively with clients and get your job done. On the other hand, you must also recognize, respect, and appreciate your clients’ rights and needs. An assertive approach enables you to take both your rights and your clients’ rights into con-sideration. (These rights are discussed in Highlight 7.2.) In assessing human behavior, you must seek to under-stand why people behave the way they do. Observing human behavior from an assertiveness perspective helps you focus on who is getting their needs met and who is not. It allows you to identify who is pushing others around inappropriately and who is being pushed.
The third reason for including assertiveness here is its significance for clients. Not only must you as-sess human behavior as part of the intervention process, you must also work with clients to plan and achieve positive changes. Many clients may benefit from using an assertiveness perspective to under-stand their own actions and the effects of these ac-tions on others. In your role as educator, you can teach your clients assertiveness principles to enhance their own interpersonal effectiveness.
Nonassertive, Assertive, and Aggressive CommunicationOn an assertiveness continuum, communication can be rated as nonassertive, assertive, or aggressive. As-sertive communication involves verbal and nonver-bal behavior that permits speakers to make points clearly and straightforwardly. Assertive speakers take into consideration both their own value system and the values of whoever is receiving their message. They consider their own points to be important; yet they also consider the points and reactions of the communication’s receiver important.
For example, the president of the Student Social Work Club asks Maria to take notes at a meeting three meetings in a row. The club’s secretary, who is supposed to take notes, is absent all three times. Maria is willing to serve, but feels it’s unfair to ask her to do the work every time instead of letting others help, too. Maria assertively states to the club president, “This is the third meeting in a row that you’ve asked me to take notes. I’m happy to help out, but I feel that it’s fair to share this task with other club members. Why don’t you ask someone else to take notes this time?”
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 4 5
Aggressive communication involves bold and dominant verbal and nonverbal behavior in which a speaker presses his or her point of view as tak-ing precedence over all others. Aggressive speakers consider only their views as important and devalue what the receiver has to say. Aggressive behaviors are demanding and most often annoying. Consider, for example, the man who barges in at the return desk in front of 17 other people standing in line and de-mands service!
Nonassertive communication is the opposite of aggressive. Speakers devalue themselves. They feel that what the other person involved thinks is much more important than their own thoughts. For ex-ample, for lunch, one day Cassie orders a hamburger well done. The waitress brings her a burger that’s practically dripping blood. However, Cassie is afraid of what the waitress will think if she complains. She doesn’t want to be seen as a “bitch.” So, instead of assertively telling the waitress that the hamburger is much too rare, Cassie douses it in ketchup and forces herself to eat half of it.
There is no perfect recipe for what to say to be assertive in any particular situation. The important thing is to take into consideration both your own rights and the rights of the person you are talking to. Following are a few examples.
Situation 1A 16-year-old girl is on her first date with a young man she likes. After a movie and pizza, they drive around a bit and find a secluded spot in the country where he pulls over and parks. The girl does not want to get sexually involved with the young man. She thinks this is too soon in their relationship. What will he think of her? She doesn’t know him well enough yet to become intimate. What can she say?
Nonassertive response: She says nothing and lets him make his sexual advances.
Aggressive response: “Get your slimy hands off me, you pervert!”
Assertive response: “I like you, Harry, but I don’t think we know each other well enough yet to get involved this way. Would you please take me home now?”
Situation 2Biff, Clay’s supervisor at Stop ’n’ Shop, tells Clay that he needs him to work several extra hours during the upcoming weekend. Biff has often asked Clay to work extra time on weekends. However, he doesn’t ask any of the other workers to do so. Clay thinks this is unfair. He needs his job, but he hates to work extra hours on weekends. What can he say?
HIGHLIGHT 7.2
each of Us has certain assertive RightsPart of becoming assertive involves believing that we are worthwhile people. It’s easy to criticize ourselves for our mistakes and imperfections. And it’s easy to hold our feelings in because we’re afraid that we will hurt someone: else’s feelings or that someone will reject us. Sometimes feelings that are held in too long will burst out in an aggressive tirade. This applies to anyone, including our clients.
A basic principle in social work is that each individual is a valuable human being. Everyone, therefore, has certain basic rights.
The following are eight of your, and your clients’, assertive rights:
1. You have the right to express your ideas and opinions openly and honestly.
2. You have the right to be wrong. Everyone makes mistakes.
3. You have the right to direct and govern your own life. In other words, you have the right to be responsible for yourself.
4. You have the right to stand up for yourself without unwarranted anxiety and make choices that are good for you.
5. You have the right not to be liked by everyone. (Do you like everyone you know?)
6. You have the right to make requests and to refuse them without feeling guilty.
7. You have the right to ask for information if you need it.8. Finally, you have the right to decide not to exercise your
assertive rights. In other words, you have the right to choose not to be assertive.
Source: Most of these rights are adapted from Lynn Z. Bloom, Karen Coburn, and Joan Pearlman, The New Assertive Woman (New York: Dell, 1976), and from Kathryn Apgar and Betsy Nicholson Callahan, Four One-Day Workshops (Boston: Resource Communications, Inc., and Family Service Association of Greater Boston, 1980).
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3 4 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Nonassertive response: “Okay.”Aggressive response: “No way, Jose! Get off my
butt, Biff!”Assertive response: “You know I like my job here,
Biff. However, I’m sorry, but I can’t work extra hours next weekend. I’ve already made other plans.”
Situation 3Dinah Lee and Hannah, both 18, hang around with the same group of friends. However, they don’t like each other very much. Dinah Lee approaches Han-nah one day and says, “It’s too bad you’re gaining so much weight.” What can Hannah say?
Nonassertive response: “Yes, you’re right. I’m try-ing to go on a diet.”
Aggressive response: “I’m not nearly as fat or ugly as you are, Buzzard Breath!”
Assertive response: “No, I haven’t gained any weight. I think that was a very inappropriate thing to say. It sounded as if you were just trying to hurt my feelings.”
The Advantages of AssertivenessDeveloping assertiveness skills has many benefits. For one thing, you can gain more control over your interpersonal environment. Assertiveness may help you avoid uncomfortable or hostile interactions with others. You will probably feel that other people un-derstand you better than they did before. Your self-concept can be enhanced as the result of your gain in control and interpersonal effectiveness. Appropri-ate assertiveness helps to alleviate building up undue tension and stress and diminish such psychosomatic reactions as headaches or stomach upsets. Finally, other people may gain respect for you, your strength, and your own demonstration of respect for others. People may even begin to use you as a role model for their own development of assertive behavior.
Assertiveness TrainingAssertiveness training leads people to realize, feel, and act on the assumption that they have the right to be themselves and express their feelings freely. Asser-tive responses generally are not aggressive responses. The distinction between these two types of interac-tions is important. For example, a woman has an excessively critical father-in-law. Intentionally doing things that will bother him (bringing up topics that she knows will upset him, forgetting Father’s Day and his birthday, not visiting) and getting into loud arguments with him would be considered aggressive behavior.
An effectively assertive response, however, would be to counter criticism by saying, “Dad, your criti-cism deeply hurts me. I know you’re trying to help when you give advice, but I feel that you’re criticizing me. I’m an adult, and I have the right to make my own decisions and mistakes. The type of relationship that I’d like to have with you is a close adult relation-ship and not a father-child relationship.”
As we know, social work is practical. Therefore, you can use the suggestions provided to enhance both your client’s assertiveness and your own. Alberti and Emmons (1976a, 1976b, 2001, 2008) developed the following 13 steps to help establish assertive behavior:
1. Examine your own actions. How do you behave in situations requiring assertiveness? Do you think you tend to be nonassertive, assertive, or aggressive in most of your communications?
Aggressive behavior reflects the dominance of the aggressor and devalues the rights and needs of others.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 47
2. Make a record of those situations in which you felt you could have behaved more effectively, ei-ther more assertively or less aggressively.
3. Select and focus on some specific instance when you felt you could have been more appropriately assertive. Visualize the specific details. What ex-actly was said? How did you feel?
4. Analyze how you reacted. Examine closely your verbal and nonverbal behavior. Alberti and Emmons (2008, pp. 71–81) cite the following seven aspects of behavior that are important to monitor:a. Eye contact. Did you look the person in the
eye? Or did you find yourself avoiding eye contact when you were uncomfortable?
b. Body posture. Were you standing up straight, or were you slouching? Were you leaning away from the person sheepishly? Were you holding your head up straight as you looked the person in the eye?
c. Gestures. Were your hand gestures fitting for the situation? Did you feel at ease? Or were you tapping your feet or cracking your knuckles? In the beginning of his term, peo-ple often criticized President George H. W. Bush for moving his arms and hands around during his public speeches. This tended to give the public the impression that he was frantic. Professional coaches helped him gain control of this behavior and present a calmer public image.
d. Facial expressions. Did you have a serious ex-pression on your face? Were you smiling or giggling uncomfortably, thereby giving the impression that you were not really serious?
e. Voice tone, inflection, volume. Did you speak in a normal voice tone? Did you whisper tim-idly? Did you raise your voice to the point of stressful screeching? Did you sound as if you were winning?
f. Timing. It is best to make an appropriately as-sertive response just after a remark is made or an incident happens. It’s also important to consider whether a particular situation re-quires assertiveness. At times it might be best to remain silent and just “let it go.” For ex-ample, it might not be wise to criticize your professor for being a “dreary bore” in a class presentation you are giving and that your professor is simultaneously grading.
g. Content. What you say in your assertive re-sponse is obviously important. Did you choose your words carefully? Did your re-sponse have the impact you wanted it to have? Why or why not?
5. Identify a role model, and examine how he or she handled a situation requiring assertiveness. What exactly happened during the incident? What words did your model use that were particularly effective? What aspects of his or her nonverbal behavior helped to get points across?
6. Identify a range of other assertive responses that could address the original problem situa-tion you targeted. What other words could you have used? What nonverbal behaviors might have been more effective?
7. Picture yourself in the identified problematic situation. It often helps to close your eyes and concentrate. Step by step, imagine how you could handle the situation more assertively.
8. Practice the way you envisioned yourself be-ing more assertive. You could target a real-life situation that remains unresolved. For example, perhaps the person you live with al-ways leaves dirty socks lying around the living room or drinks all your soda and forgets to tell you the refrigerator is bare. Or you can ask a friend, teacher, or counselor to help you role-play the situation. Role-playing provides an effective mechanism for practicing responses before you have to use them spontaneously in real life.
9. Once again, review your new assertive responses. Emphasize your strong points, and try to rem-edy your flaws.
10. Continue practicing steps 7, 8, and 9 until your newly developed assertive approach feels com-fortable and natural to you.
11. Try out your assertiveness in a real-life situation. 12. Continue to expand your assertive behavior rep-
ertoire until assertiveness becomes part of your personal interactive style. You can review the earlier steps and try them out in an increasingly wider range of situations.
13. Give yourself a pat on the back when you suc-ceed in becoming more assertive. It’s not easy changing long-standing patterns of behavior. Focus on and revel in the good feelings you ex-perience as a result of your successes.
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3 4 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Application of Assertiveness Approaches to Social Work PracticeHelping clients learn to be more assertive is appro-priate in a wide range of practice situations. For ex-ample, teenagers may need to develop assertiveness skills to ward off the massive peer pressure engulf-ing them. This means more than “just saying no” to drugs, sex, or any other activity they feel pressured to participate in. Assertiveness training involves help-ing people identify alternative types of responses in uncomfortable situations. Finally, assertiveness training involves working out and practicing these alternative responses ahead of time so that they be-come easier and more natural.
Another example of a client needing assertive-ness training is a shy, reserved client who needs to ask his landlord to do some repairs needed in the cli-ent’s apartment. Still another client might need help becoming more assertive in preparation for a job interview.
Workers themselves need to develop assertiveness skills in order to advocate for services on behalf of their clients. Good communication skills and a re-spect for others are basic necessities for social work practice. You can lead your clients through each step of assertiveness training to become more competent and effective communicators.
Either as a friend or as a social worker, you can be very helpful in assisting another person—your “client”— to become more assertive. The following guidelines are suggested:
1. Together identify situations or interactions in which your client needs to be more assertive. Get information about such interactions from your observations and knowledge of the person and from discussing in depth the interactions in which the person feels a need to be more assertive. You may also ask the person to keep a diary of inter-actions in which she or he feels resentment over being nonassertive and interactions in which she or he was overly aggressive.
2. Develop together some strategies for the person to be more assertive. Small assignments with a high probability of successful outcomes should be given first. A great deal of discussion and preparation should take place between the two of you in preparing for the “real event.” For a per-son who is generally shy, introverted, and nonas-sertive in all interpersonal relationships, it may be
necessary to explore in great detail the connection between nonassertive behavior and feelings of re-sentment or low self-esteem. In addition, for very shy people, certain attitudes, such as “don’t make waves” or “the meek will inherit the earth,” may need to be dealt with before developing strategies for the person to be more assertive.
3. Role-playing is a very useful technique in prepar-ing for being assertive. The helper first models an assertive strategy by taking the shy person’s role. Shy clients concurrently role-play the role of the person with whom they want to be more asser-tive. Then the roles are reversed; clients role-play themselves, and the helper plays the other role. Besides the previously mentioned benefits of modeling and practice experience, role-playing has the added advantage of reducing the shy per-son’s anxiety about attempting to be assertive. For feedback purposes, if possible, record the role-playing on audio or videotape.
4. Explain the 13 steps described earlier that your client can use on his or her own to handle future problem situations involving assertiveness. If pos-sible, provide reading material on these steps.
LO 6 Explore Suicide in AdolescenceWhy do people decide to terminate their lives? Is it because life is unbearable, painful, hopeless, or use-less? Suicide can occur during almost any time of life. However, it might be considered especially criti-cal in the years of adolescence and youth. This is the time of life when people could enjoy being young and fresh and looking forward to life’s wide variety of exciting experiences. Instead, many young people decide to take their own lives.
Incidence of SuicideSuicide is one of the most critical health problems in the United States today. Consider these frightening facts (Jason foundation, 2016):
● Suicide is the second leading cause of death of youth, ages 12–18, in the United States.
● More teenagers die from suicide in the United States than from heart disease, cancer, AIDS, stroke, birth defects, influenza, pneumonia, and chronic lung disease, COMBINED.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 3 49
● Four out of five teens who attempt suicide have given clear warning signs.
● Each day in the United States there are an average of over 5,400 attempts by young people grades 7–12.
Far more adolescents think about committing suicide or make an unsuccessful attempt than those who actually succeed (CDC, 2012, 2014). One na-tional survey found that 16 percent of adolescents in U.S. high schools had thought seriously about sui-cide within the past year, 13 percent had established a plan for how to do it, and 8 percent actually at-tempted suicide (CDC, 2014). One in 10,000 adoles-cents actually succeeds in committing suicide (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). White adolescents are more likely to commit suicide than their African American counterparts; Native American and Alaskan Native adolescents are the most likely to commit suicide of any ethnic group in the United States (Anderson & Smith, 2005; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013). Hispanic female adolescents are more likely to attempt sui-cide than their non-Hispanic Caucasian or African American counterparts (CDC, 2014) (Spotlight 7.3 will address this issue later in the chapter).
Causes of Adolescent SuicideNo specific recipe of variables contributes to any in-dividual adolescent’s suicide probability. However, adolescents who threaten or try to commit suicide tend to experience problems in three main arenas: in-creased stress, family issues, and psychological vari-ables (particularly depression) (Berk, 2012b; CDC, 2014; Sigelman & Rider, 2012; Steinberg, Vandell, & Bornstein, 2011b).
Increased StressMany teenagers today express concern over the mul-tiple pressures they have to bear. To some extent, these pressures might be related to current social and economic conditions. Many families are breaking up. Pressures to succeed are great. Some experience ex-treme bullying. Many young people are worried about what kind of job they will find when they get out of school. Peer pressure to conform and to be accepted socially is constantly operating. Some feel rejected due to their sexuality. Suicidal adolescents may lose any coping powers they may have had and simply give up.
A range of significant events might increase stress and jar adolescents into suicidal thinking. Unwanted pregnancy or even fear of unwanted pregnancy is an
example. Other stressful events include losses such as the death of someone close, divorce, family relocation, or even national disasters (Nairne, 2014; Sigelman & Rider, 2012). Even the stress resulting from declining grades in school might contribute to suicide.
Problems in peer relationships can contribute to stress. An adolescent may feel unwanted or isolated, that he or she simply does not fit in. Or an adoles-cent might experience devastating trauma after being “dumped” by a girlfriend or boyfriend. Adolescents’ lack of experience in coping with such situations may make it seem as though life is over after losing “the one and only person” they love. Many adolescents have not yet had time to work through such experiences and learn that they can survive emotional turmoil.
Evidence suggests that teenagers who are over-achievers experience greater stress and therefore are more likely to commit suicide (Kurpius, Kerr, & Harkins, 2005; McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 2013). Overachievers may expect too much of themselves and respond to pressure from parents, school, and friends in an overly zealous man-ner. One teenager comes to mind. Terri was a popular high school cheerleader. She had been homecoming queen one fall. She was an A student and editor of the yearbook. When she killed herself, everyone was surprised. Most of the people around her felt that she had everything and wondered why she threw it all away. They said it was such a shame. Apparently, she had hidden her inner turmoil very well. Perhaps she was just tired of working (and playing) so hard. Or maybe, no matter how she seemed to others, she never measured up to her own expectations for herself. At any rate, no one will ever know. We all probably know of someone like Terri. (Chapter 14 will discuss stress and stress management in greater detail.)
Family IssuesTurbulence and disruption at home contribute to the profile of an adolescent suicide (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; McWhirter et al., 2013; Sigelman & Rider, 2012). There might be serious communica-tion problems, parental substance abuse, parental mental health problems, or physical or sexual abuse (McWhirter et al., 2013; National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2010). Lack of a stable home en-vironment contributes to the sense of loneliness and isolation for both boys and girls. Highlight 7.3 describes a young woman who struggled to cope with family and other issues, but failed.
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35 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Psychological VariablesPsychological variables, usually relating to depres-sion, make up the third arena for problems leading to suicidal thoughts. One such factor is low self-esteem (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; McWhirter et al., 2013). When people don’t feel strong internally, they find it very difficult to muster the support necessary to cope with outside pressures.
Feelings of helplessness and hopelessness may also contribute to suicide potential (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; McWhirter et al., 2013; Sue, Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2013). As adolescents struggle to establish an iden-tity and function independently of their parents, it’s no wonder that many feel helpless. They must abide by the rules of their parents and schools. They suffer from peer pressure to conform to the norms of their age group. They are seeking acceptance by society and a place where they will fit in. At the same time, an adolescent must strive to develop a unique personal-ity, a sense of self that is valuable for its own sake. At times, such a struggle may indeed seem hopeless.
Impulsivity, or a sudden decision to act without giving much thought to the action, is yet another variable related to adolescent suicide (McWhirter et al., 2013). Confusion, isolation, and feelings of despair may contribute to an impulsive decision to end it all.
HIGHLIGHT 7.3
Joany: a victim of suicideJoany, age 15, was one of the “stoners” People said that she used a lot of drugs and was wild. She did poorly in school, when she did manage to attend. Her appearance was striking. Her hair was cropped short, somewhat unevenly, and was characterized by a different color of the rainbow every day, including purple, green, and hot pink. Short leather miniskirts, multiple piercings, and dark, exaggerated makeup were also part of her style. Black appeared to be her favorite color, as it was about all she wore. She hung around with a group who looked and behaved much like herself. More studious, upper-middle-class, college-bound peers couldn’t understand why she behaved that way. It was easy for them to point and snicker at her as she walked down the high school halls.
One day she came to school looking almost normal, noted Karen, one of her more scholarly classmates. Karen had at times felt sorry for Joany when people made fun of her. But this day Joany was wearing an unobtrusive skirt and sweater.
More noticeably, her hair was combed in a much more traditional manner than usual. Joany finally looked like she fit in with her classmates. Karen called out a compliment to Joany as she was walking down the hall, laughing with some of her other weird-looking friends. Joany turned, smiled, gave a hurried thanks, and returned to her conversation.
The next day the word spread like wildfire throughout the student population. Joany, it seemed, had hanged herself in her parents’ basement. The rumor was that she was terribly upset because her parents were getting a divorce. No one really knew why she had killed herself. People didn’t understand the sense of hopelessness and desolation she felt. Nor did anyone know why she did not turn to friends or family or school counselors for help. There seemed to be so many unanswered questions.
All that remained of Joany several months later was an oversized picture of her on the last page of the high school yearbook. It was labeled “In Memoriam.”
Adolescents experience many pressures and anxieties. Young people are not sure that they will find a job with which they can support themselves when they get out of school.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 351
Adolescents today face a hard transition into adulthood. Social values are shifting. Peer pressure is immense. Adolescents have not had time to gain life experience and so tend to behave impulsively. Any trivial incident may become a crisis. Every mo-ment of the day can feel like the end of the world if something goes wrong.
Lesbian and Gay Adolescents and SuicideThere has been concern that lesbian and gay adolescents are more likely to com-mit suicide than are their heterosexual peers (Alderson, 2013; Berk, 2012b; Hunter & Hickerson, 2003; McWhirter et al., 2013). It makes sense that a quest for identity in a heterosexual world may
result in isolation, low self-esteem, and other prob-lems potentially related to suicide. In September 2010, the nation was “shocked” by three gay youth who killed themselves after extensive bullying by peers; the methods used were gunshot, hanging, and jump-ing off a bridge (Dotinga & Mundell, 2010). Another 2013 incident involved a gay 15-year-old sophomore named Jadin Bell in La Grande, Oregon; after exten-sive bullying both on a one-to-one basis and online. He couldn’t take it any more and hanged himself on playground equipment at a local elementary school (Williams, 2013). These incidents may reflect how “adolescence renders young people especially vulner-able to harassment, and the difficulties of grappling with sexuality can complicate that further” (Dotinga, 2013; Dotinga & Mundell, 2010). Additionally, sui-cide attempts by gay and lesbian youth may be re-lated to “sexual milestones such as self-identification as homosexual, coming out to others, or resulting loss of friendship” (McWhirter et al., 2013, p. 261). However, from a strengths perspective, remember that
EP 2a EP 2c
the majority of “lesbian and gay youth cope with the stressors of their lives well and most of them do not attempt suicide” (Hunter & Hickerson, 2003, p. 331).
Suicidal SymptomsW. M. Patterson and his associates (Patterson, Dohn, Bird, & Patterson, 1983) cite various risk factors that are related to a person’s potential for carrying through with a suicide. They propose a mechanism for evaluating suicide potential, the SAD PERSONS scale. Each letter in the acronym corresponds to one of the high-risk factors.
It should be emphasized that any of the many available guidelines to assess suicide potential are just that—guidelines. People who threaten to com-mit suicide should be believed. The fact that they are talking about it means that they are thinking about doing it. However, the following variables are useful as guidelines for determining risk—that is, how high the probability is that they will attempt and succeed at suicide. Highlight 7.4 cites a number of suicide notes that reflect these symptoms.
SexAmong adolescents, females are much more likely to try to kill themselves than males (CDC, 2014; Nairne, 2014). However, males are four times more likely to succeed in their attempts (CDC, 2012). Adolescents of either gender may have serious suicide potential. However, greater danger exists if the person threat-ening suicide is a male. One reason for this is that males are more likely to choose a more deadly means of committing suicide, such as firearms or hanging, whereas women tend to use less lethal methods such as a drug overdose; unfortunately, however, women increasingly are using deadlier, more effective meth-ods (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; NIMH, 2010).
HIGHLIGHT 7.4
suicide notesThe following are suicide notes written by people of various ages shortly before they successfully committed
suicide.
Whomever—I wrote this sober, so it is what I planned. Sober or drunk. I love you all and please don’t feel
guilty because it is what I planned drunk or sober. Life still happens whether it is today or tomorrow. But after 23 years I would think that I could have met a person that I would mean more than personal advantage. If only I meant something. People just don’t seem to care.
(continued)
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352 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
AgeAlthough a person of almost any age may attempt and succeed at suicide, the risks are greater for some age groups than for others. Statistics indicate that peo-ple ages 15 to 24, or 65 or older, are in the high-risk groups (Coon & Mitterer, 2014). Older white males are especially at risk (Coon & Mitterer, 2014). Sui-cide accounts for 20 percent of all deaths for people ages 15 to 24 (CDC, 2012). However, the number of suicides among middle-aged Americans has recently risen significantly, which may affect the assessment of suicidal potential in the future (Jaslow, 2013).
DepressionDepression contributes to a person’s potential to commit suicide (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; McWhirter et al., 2013; Steinberg et al., 2011b). Depression, technically referred to as depressive disorder, is a psychiatric condition characterized by a disheart-ened mood; unhappiness; a lack of interest in daily activities; an inability to experience pleasure; pessi-mism; significant weight loss not related to dieting, or weight gain; insomnia; an extremely low energy level; feelings of hopelessness and worthlessness; a decreased capacity to focus and make decisions; and a preoccupation with thoughts about suicide and one’s own death. Being depressed doesn’t involve
Is it that I give the impression that I don’t care? I wish and want to know. I feel so unimportant to everyone. As though my presence does not mean anything to anybody. I wish so much to be something to someone. But I feel the harder I try the worse I do. Maybe I just have not run into the right person. I am still 6 feet underground. My mind just didn’t want any of it obviously. Make sure ________ goes to mom. No matter what I do, in my life, I still am going to die. By someone else’s hands OR MY OWN.
(Female, age 23, died of a gunshot wound.)
I can’t put up with this shit. I’m sorry I have to do this, but I have nothing left.
P.S. Closed casket please.Give my guns to______ (Male, age 25, died of a gunshot wound.)
Mom and Daddon’t feel bad—I have problems—don’t feel the blame for this on you _______ (Male, age 18, died of a gunshot wound.)
Please forgive me for leaving you. I love you very much, but could not cope with my health problems plus financial worries etc. Try to understand and pray for me.
I wish you all the best and that you will be able to find the happiness in life I could not.
Love and Kisses Mom Good Bye and God bless oxoxoxox (Female, age 47, died of carbon monoxide poisoning.)
I can’t take the abuse, the hurt, the rejection, the isolation, the loneliness. I can’t deal with all of it. I can’t try anymore. The tears are endless. I’ve fallen into a bottomless pit of despair. I know eternal pain and tears…
No one knows I’m alive or seems to care if I die. I’m a terrible, worthless person and it would be better if I’d never been born. Tabby was my only friend in the world, and now she’s dead. There’s no reason for me to live anymore. . .
Mom and Dad, I hate you! Love Tommy
Source: Recorded in “A Cry for Help: Teen Suicide,” prepared and presented by Tom Skinner, Edison Junior High School, Janesville, WI. Reprinted by permission of the Rock County Coroner’s Office, Beloit, WI.
HIGHLIGHT 7.4 (continued)
Depression, characterized by a disheartened mood, unhappiness, and pessimism, can contribute to an adolescent’s suicide potential.
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 35 3
simply feeling bad. Rather, it involves a collection of characteristics, feelings, and behaviors that tend to occur in conjunction with each other.
Previous AttemptsPeople who have tried to kill themselves before are more likely to succeed than people who are trying to commit suicide for the first time (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; Nairne, 2014; NIMH, 2010).
Ethanol and Other Drug AbusePeople who abuse alcohol and other drugs are much more likely to commit suicide than people who do not (CDC, 2014; Coon & Mitterer, 2014; Nevid, 2013; Rathus, 2014d). Mind-altering substances may affect logical thinking, causing emotional distress to escalate.
Rational Thinking LossPeople who suffer from mental or emotional dis-orders, such as depression or psychosis, are more likely to kill themselves than those who do not (Mc-Whirter et al., 2013; Nairne, 2014; NIMH, 2010). Hallucinations, delusions, extreme confusion, and anxiety all contribute to an individual’s risk factors. If a person is not thinking realistically and objec-tively, emotions and impulsivity are more likely to take over.
Social Supports LackingLoneliness and isolation have already been discussed as primary contributing factors (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; McWhirter et al., 2013). People who feel that no one cares about them may feel useless and hope-less. Suicide potential may be especially high in cases in which a loved one has recently died or deserted the individual who’s threatening suicide.
Organized PlanThe more specific and organized an individual’s plan regarding when and how the suicide will be under-taken, the greater the risk (Coon & Mitterer, 2013; McWhirter et al., 2013; Sheafor & Horejsi, 2012; Sue et al., 2013). Additionally, the more dangerous the method, the greater the risk. For instance, the pres-ence of a firearm increases suicide risk (CDC, 2014; Coon & Mitterer, 2014; NIMH, 2010). A plan to use the loaded rifle you have hidden in the basement to-morrow evening at 7:00 p.m. is more lethal than a plan of somehow getting some drugs and overdosing sometime. Several questions might be asked when evaluating this risk factor. How much detail is in-volved in the plan? Has the individual put a lot of
thought into the specific details regarding how the suicide is to occur? Has the plan been thought over before? How dangerous is the chosen method? Is the method or weapon readily available to the individ-ual? Has the specific time been chosen for when the suicide is to take place?
No SpouseAs adults, single people are much more likely to com-mit suicide than married people (Coon & Mitterer, 2014; Sue et al., 2013). “The highest suicide rates are found among the divorced, the next highest rates occur among the widowed, lower rates are recorded for [never married] single persons, and married in-dividuals have the lowest rates of all” (Coon, 2006, p. 521). Generally, people without partners have a greater chance of feeling lonely and isolated.
SicknessPeople who are ill are more likely to commit sui-cide than those who are healthy (Coon & Mitterer, 2014). This is especially true for those who have long-term illnesses that place substantial limita-tions on their lives. Perhaps in some of these in-stances, their inability to cope with the additional stress of sickness and pain eats away at their overall coping ability.
Other SymptomsOther characteristics operate as warning signals for suicide. For example, rapid changes in mood, be-havior, or general attitude are other indicators that a person is in danger of committing suicide (Coon & Mitterer, 2013; James & Gilliland, 2013; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; McWhirter et al., 2013). A poten-tially suicidal person may be one who has suddenly become severely depressed and withdrawn. But a person who has been depressed for a long time and suddenly becomes strikingly cheerful may also be in danger. Sometimes in the latter instance, the individ-ual has already made up his or her mind to commit suicide. In those instances, the cheerfulness may stem from relief that the desperate decision has finally been made. Suddenly giving away personal posses-sions that are especially important or meaningful is another warning signal of suicide potential (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; McWhirter et al., 2013; Rathus, 2014b). It is as if once the decision has been made to commit suicide, giving things away to selected others is a way of finalizing the decision. Perhaps it’s a way of tying up loose ends, or of making certain that the final details are taken care of.
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35 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Note that other variables can also contribute to suicide potential. These include a family history of suicide, a recent traumatic event or significant loss, and finding out about other people’s suicides (CDC, 2014).
We have already established that there are ra-cial and ethnic disparities in suicide. Spotlight 7.3 explores the relatively high rate of suicide attempts by Hispanic females, compared to their non-Hispanic Caucasian and African American female counterparts.
How to Use the SAD PERSONS ScalePatterson et al. (1983, p. 348) suggest a framework for using the SAD PERSONS scale when evaluat-ing suicide potential. The scale itself is presented in Highlight 7.5. One point is assigned to each condi-tion that applies to the suicidal person. For example,
if a person is depressed, he or she would automati-cally receive a score of 1. Depression in addition to alcoholism would result in a score of 2, and so on. Although the SAD PERSONS scale was devel-oped specifically to teach medical students how to evaluate suicide potential, social workers can use it in a similar manner. It may be helpful in assess-ing the intensity of treatment an individual might need. The following decision-making guidelines are recommended:
Total Points Proposed Clinical Actions
0 to 2 send home with a follow-up.
3 to 4 consider hospitalization.
5 to 6 strongly consider hospitalization, depending on confidence in the follow-up arrangement.
7 to 10 hospitalize or commit.
suicide and adolescent hispanic FemalesWe have established the importance of understanding and focusing on the many aspects of cultural, racial, and ethnic diversity to better understand people’s behavior. This is also true when evaluating suicide potential. The rate of suicide attempts by adolescent Hispanic females is higher than for their Caucasian or African American
non-Hispanic peers (CDC, 2012, 2014; Zayas, 2011). Zayas, Kaplan, Turner, Romano, and Gonzalez-Ramos (2000) propose an “integrative model” for understanding suicide attempts by adolescent Hispanic females that reflects their cultural context and immediate environment (p. 53).
One of the integrative model’s dimensions is sociocultural. One aspect of this concerns the degree to which the adolescents’ families are acculturated—that is, have accepted and adopted the cultural patterns and behaviors manifested by the dominant cultural group. Discrepancies in acculturation between daughters and parents are apparent in Hispanic families with suicidal female adolescents (Zayas et al., 2000). Daughters strive to adopt customs and values evident in the overriding non-Hispanic culture, whereas parents maintain their allegiance to values, beliefs, and behavior characterizing their original cultural heritage. The result may be high levels of family stress and conflict, contributing to the adolescent’s anguish and suicide potential.
A second dimension involved in the integrative model is family domain. Regardless of racial and ethnic background,
family discord, including “low cohesiveness, familial and marital conflict and violence, low parental support and war mth, [and] parent-adolescent conflict,” contributes to suicide potential (Zayas et al., 2000). With respect to female Hispanic adolescents, Zayas and associates explain that “traditionally structured (i.e., patriarchal and male-dominated) Hispanic families tend to emphasize restrictive, authoritarian parenting, especially with regard to girls. This traditionalism may affect a family’s capacity to respond flexibly to a daughter during a developmental move toward autonomy and individualism, even when the father is absent” (p. 57). As daughters strive for independence and are faced with inflexibility, conflict may result. This, in turn, may contribute to young women’s distress and suicide potential.
Still another dimension stressed in the integrative model involves a psychological domain. We have established that depression is one factor contributing to suicidal potential. Zayas and his associates (2000) explain that “among adolescents who attempt suicide, a key factor in coping is how they manage anger. Because of the cultural prohibitions on women’s direct expressions of anger, the adolescent Hispanic female also may be socialized by her own more tradition-bound parents to suppress her anger. . . [As a result] having limited abilities to cope with anger and lacking appropriate problem-solving skills may interact to trigger the suicide attempt” (p. 59).
EP 2a EP 2c
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 7.3
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 355
HIGHLIGHT 7.5
the saD PeRsons scaleS (Sex)A (Age)D (Depression)P (Previous Attempt)E (Ethanol Abuse)R (Rational Thinking Loss)S (Social Supports Lacking)O (Organized Plan)N (No Spouse)S (Sickness)
Source: This article was published in Psychosomatics 24(4), W. M. Patterson, H. H. Dohn, J. Bird, and G. A. Patterson, “Evaluation of Suicidal Patients: The SAD PERSONS Scale,” pp. 343–349. Copyright Elsevier 1983.
Zero to 2 points indicate a mild potential that still merits some follow-up and attention. At the other extreme, a score of 7 to 10 indicates severe suicide potential: These cases would merit immediate atten-tion and action. Hospitalization or commitment are among available options. Scores ranging from 3 to 6 represent a range of serious suicide potential. Al-though people with these scores need help and atten-tion, the immediacy and intensity of that attention may vary. In each case, professional discretion would be involved.
We have indicated that the SAD PERSONS scale was developed to aid physicians in training. It is most likely that such physicians will not be proficient in addressing mental health problems themselves. Thus, there is an emphasis on referral to some-one else and on hospitalization. Social workers, on the other hand, may often be called upon to work directly with suicidal people. Some guidelines are described next.
Guidelines for Helping Suicidal PeopleTwo levels of intervention are possible for deal-ing with a potentially suicidal person. The first involves addressing the immediate crisis. The per-son threatening to commit suicide needs immedi-ate help and support literally to keep him or her alive. The second level would address the other
issues that worked to escalate his or her stress. This second level of intervention might involve longer-term treatment to address issues of longer dura-tion that were not necessarily directly related to the suicide crisis.
For example, consider a 15-year-old male who is deeply troubled over the serious problems his parents are experiencing in their marriage. This preoccupation, in addition to his normally shy personality, has alienated him from virtually any social contacts with his peers. The result is a seri-ous consideration regarding whether life is worth it. The first priority is to prevent the suicide. How-ever, this young man also needs to address and re-solve the problems that caused the stress in the first place—his parents’ conflicts and his lack of friends. Longer-term counseling or treatment might be necessary.
Reactions to a Suicide ThreatYou get a phone call in the middle of the night from an old friend you haven’t heard from in a while who says she cannot stand living anymore. Or a client calls you late Friday afternoon and says that he is planning to shoot himself. What do you do? Specific suggestions for how to treat the potentially suicidal person include the following.
● Remain calm and objective (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2013; Smith, Segal, & Robinson, 2013). Don’t allow the emotional distress being experienced by the other person to contaminate your own judgment. The individual needs help in becoming more rational and objective. The person does not need someone else who is drawn into the emotional crisis. Ask the person if they are suicidal and determine if a specific plan for suicide exists.
● Be supportive (McWhirter et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2013). Jobes, Berman, and Martin (2005) suggest that “connecting with the pain can be achieved through careful and thoughtful listening, emotional availability, and warmth; it may be shown by eye contact, posture, and n o nve r b a l c u e s t h at c o m mu n i c at e g e nu i n e interest, concern, and caring” (p. 407). They note further that it is vital to “respect the depth and degree of pain reported by a youth. Self-reports of extreme emotional pain and trauma should not be dismissed as adolescent melodrama. The experience of pain is acute and real to
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35 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
adolescents and potentially life-threatening. . . [Y]oung people tend to be present oriented and lack the years of life experience that may provide the perspective needed to endure a painful period” (p. 408).
● Identify the immediate problem (Jobes et al., 2005; Sue et al., 2013). Help the person clearly identify what is causing the excessive stress. The problem needs to be recognized before it can be examined. The individual may be viewing an event way out of perspective. For example, a 16-year-old girl was crushed after her steady boyfriend of 18 months dropped her. In this instance, the loss of her boyfriend overshadowed all of the other things in her life—her family, her friends, her membership in the National Honor Society, and her favorite activity, running. She needed help focusing on exactly what had caused her stress—the loss of her boyfriend. To her, it felt like she had lost her whole life, which was a gross distortion of reality.
● Identify strengths (Jobes et al., 2005; Sue et al., 2013). It is helpful to identify and emphasize the person’s positive qualities. For example, the individual might be pleasant, unselfish, hardworking, conscientious, bright, attractive, and so on. People who are feeling suicidal are
most likely focusing on the “bad things” they perceive about themselves. They forget their positive characteristics.
● Decrease isolation (Jobes et al., 2005; McWhirter et al., 2013). Another source of strength lies in people close to the suicidal person. Who can that person turn to for emotional support and help? These people may include family, friends, a religious leader, a guidance counselor, or a physician—people the person trusts and can communicate with. In the case of an emergency, it may be necessary to rely on the support of emergency professionals (police officers or medical staff).
● Explore past coping mechanisms (Jobes et al., 2005; Roberts, 2005). When the person has hit rough spots before, how has he or she dealt with them? You can emphasize how the person has survived such tough times before. Suicidal people may be in a rut of negative, depressing thoughts. They may be blind to anything but their immediate crisis. Sometimes, people in this suicidal rut have hit their lowest emotional point. Their perspective is such that they feel that life has always been as bad as this, and that it always will be as bad as this (see Figure 7.1). A suicidal person has probably been “up” before and probably will be “up” again.
Normalprogression
of life’sups and downs
Totalhappiness
Total sadness
Suicidal perspective:life is bad; it always has been
and always will be.
FIGURE 7.1 Life’s Ups and Downs
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 357
Often this historical perspective can be pointed out and used beneficially. If possible, help the person understand that suicide is a permanent, fatal option in response to a temporary crisis (Sheafor & Horejsi, 2012).
● Avoid clichés. Don’t argue with the suicidal person about the philosophical values of life versus death (James & Gilliland, 2013; Santrock, 2016). Don’t use clichés like “There’s so much that life has to offer you,” or “Your life is just beginning.” This type of approach only makes people feel like you’re on a different wavelength and don’t understand how they feel. People who threaten suicide have real suicidal feelings. They’re not likely to be exaggerating them or making them up. What they need is objective, empathic support (McWhirter et al., 2013).
● Examine potential options (Jobes et al., 2005; Sheafor & Horejsi, 2012). One of the most useful and concrete things that can be done for suicidal people is to help them get the help they need. Because suicidal people tend to be isolated, this help often involves referring them to the various resources—both personal and professional—that are available. Referrals to police or a hospital emergency room can be helpful when an emergency situation arises. Finally, professionals in mental health are available to provide long-term help to people in need.
Professional Counseling of Suicidal PeopleJobes and his associates (2005) suggest at least five steps for social workers or counselors to consider when working with, and establishing a plan of ac-tion with, suicidal clients:
1. Make the environment safe. Take away, or make minimally available, the means by which the per-son was contemplating suicide. Ask the person direct questions about his/her specific method for completing suicide. Depending on the plan, this might include removing pills or guns. It might also include making certain supportive people re-main with the client.
2. “Negotiating safety.” Jobes and his associates (2005) explain: “Generally, the concrete goal of these negotiations is to ensure the patient’s physical safety by establishing that the patient will not hurt him- or herself for a specific pe-riod of time. The more concrete and specific the
understanding, the better. Typically, the patient will agree to maintain his or her safety until the next clinical contact, at which point a new under-standing can be negotiated” (p. 410). A number of suicide counselors ask the suicidal person to sign a written contract in which the suicidal per-son commits to contacting the counselor and discussing the potential suicide before taking any concrete steps to end his or her life, such a contract has a powerful impact on the suicidal person following through on delaying taking any action to end his or her life.
3. Plan for future support. The suicidal client should have continuity of social and professional sup-port. This includes scheduling future counseling sessions, making follow-up calls to ensure that the client is all right, and planning meetings and events the client can look forward to.
4. Minimize loneliness and seclusion. Jobes and his associates (2005) reflect: “The patient must not be left alone in the midst of a suicidal crisis. It is critical that a trustworthy friend or family mem-ber remain with the patient through the crisis phase. Efforts must be made to mobilize friends, family, and neighbors, making them aware of the importance of ongoing contact with the suicidal youth” (pp. 410–411).
5. Provide more intensive care via hospitalization. If it’s not possible to stabilize the client and his or her environment to keep the client safe, hospital-ization may be necessary.
A Cautionary NoteIt’s important to realize that suicide prevention may not always be possible. All you can do is your very best to help a suicidal person hold on to life. The ul-timate decision whether to continue living or not lies with the individual.
Community Empowerment: Suicide Prevention and Crisis InterventionCommunity resources are critical for successful sui-cide prevention. You cannot refer people for help if the appropriate services don’t exist. If resources are not available, you as a social worker may need to advocate for new programs or to expand ser-vices within your own or other agencies. A com-munity system can address suicide prevention in many ways. Four are discussed here: task forces for
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358 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
suicide prevention, crisis lines, peer-helping pro-grams in schools, and training programs for com-munity professionals.
Creation of a suicide prevention task force pro-vides a potentially effective means to evaluate the need for services and decide what types of services to offer. A task force is a group established for a specific purpose, usually within the context of an organization or community, that pursues desig-nated goals and disbands when these goals have been achieved (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2012a). A task force can be made up of interested individ-uals within an organization or a cross section of professionals and citizens within a community. The task force can then make decisions regarding how the agency or community can best meet the community’s need for suicide prevention services. It can answer a number of questions and decide on a plan of action. Who are the potential clients? Are there services already existing within the com-munity that can best meet the suicide prevention need? If not, what types of programs should be initiated? What resources are available to develop such programs?
For example, the Task Force on Suicide in Canada was established to evaluate extensively suicide in Canada and report its findings and recommen-dations (Health Canada, Health Programs and Services Branch, 1994). The group addressed the needs of the entire country instead of smaller com-munity systems. The report’s intent was to
deal with the nature and extent of suicide and suicide-related problems, discuss demographic and sociological parameters, and identify the Canadian groups at greatest risk…; it also summarized knowledge of etiological processes [reasons and causes of the behavior] and gathered information on programs of suicide prevention, intervention, and postvention. . .
Prevention refers to the implementation of measures to prevent the onset of suicidal crises by eliminating or mitigating particular. . . situations of heightened risk…, by promoting life-enhancing conditions, and by reducing negative societal conditions. Several such measures. . . [included] improved approaches to media coverage, broader-based public education programs (disseminating information about how to recognize a potentially suicidal person, what to do and where to go for
help), and a reduction in the availability and lethality of means.
Intervention refers to the actions aimed at the immediate management of the suicidal crisis and the longer-term care, treatment and support of persons at risk. Actions involved include identification of potential sources of referral, crisis recognition, risk assessment, -reducing the intensity of the crisis, and treatment and support of the person at risk. . . [The task force recommended] education and training for health care professions and gate-keepers, especially in areas such as “first-aid” interventions and methods of treatment for those who are in acute and chronic suicidal crises.
Postvention refers to activity undertaken to deal with the aftermath of a suicide. The purpose of such actions is twofold: to provide social support and counseling to bereaved persons, and to collect psychological autopsy information for the purpose of reconstructing the social and psychological circumstances associated with the suicide. (Health Canada, Health Programs and Services Branch, 1994, pp. xi–xiii)
Recommendations were also made concerning the ways the legal system could address the suicide problem (e.g., by decriminalizing attempted suicide). The task force emphasized the need for research re-garding the reasons for suicide, the most effective treatment approaches, and the evaluation of suicide prevention programs.
Another example of an ongoing task force ad-dressing suicide is the Task Force for Child Survival and Development. Although its base is in Georgia, it focuses on both domestic and international health issues. Its purpose initially was “to help public and private organizations achieve their mission in pro-moting health and human development by building coalitions, forging consensus, and leveraging scarce resources” in the prevention of suicide (Task Force for Child Survival and Development [TFCSD], 2004a). In recent years, its focus has expanded “to in-clude other aspects of child health and development” (TFCSD, 2004a, 2011, 2014). Its goals have included the promotion of public awareness about suicide, the creation of suicide prevention programs, the provi-sion of training programs concerning suicide assess-ment and treatment, and the promotion of research (TFCSD, 2004b).
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Psychological Development in Adolescence 359
Crisis telephone lines are another approach to suicide prevention. Such crisis lines can be for a specific type of crisis (such as domestic violence or suicidal potential) or can provide crisis intervention and referral information for virtually any type of crisis. An advantage of either type of crisis line is that people thinking about suicide can call anony-mously for help at the time they need such help the most. People working on crisis lines need thorough training in suicide prevention. Additionally, such lines should have staff available at all hours of the day. (Imagine the adverse reaction of the person contemplating suicide who is told to leave a mes-sage at the sound of the beep.) Finally, crisis lines should be well publicized. People must know about them to use them.
Another example of a community system’s ap-proach to suicide prevention is the establishment of a peer-helping program, such as Teen Lifeline (2013) in Arizona. The “heart” of the program is its Peer Counseling Hotline that provides daily access to a Peer Counselor. Troubled teens often want to talk to other teens about their problems. Volunteer Peer Counselors “can empathize and understand the problems of the callers because, in many cases, they have or are going through the same things them-selves.” The program receives more than 11,000 calls annually, many from teens who are depressed or sui-cidal. Participant volunteers receive 70 hours of Life Skills training that focuses on “listening skills, com-munication skills, self-esteem, problem solving and relevant teen issues.” The hotline is supervised by a master’s-level mental health clinician. The program also provides opportunities to schools for community education on suicide and a variety of other issues in-cluding “depression, grief, dying, stress/anxiety, and substance’ abuse.”
The fourth example of a community system’s re-sponse to the suicide problem is the development and provision of suicide prevention training pro-grams for community professionals and other caregiv-ers. Caregivers include professionals such as social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and counsel-ors. Caregivers may also include any others that po-tentially suicidal people may turn to for help. These include clergy, family members, nurses, teachers, and friends. Training as many caregivers as possible significantly increases the chance for a potentially suicidal person to make contact with someone who can help.
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to:
LO 1 Explore identity formation in adoles-cence (including Erikson’s psychosocial theor y Marcia’s categories of identity, and Glasser’s theories).Erikson proposed eight stages of psychosexual de-velopment: basic trust versus basic mistrust, auton-omy versus shame and doubt, initiative versus guilt, industry versus inferiority, identity versus role con-fusion (which occurs during adolescence), intimacy versus isolation, generativity versus stagnation, and ego integrity versus despair.
Marcia’s four categories of identity are identity achievement, foreclosure, identity diffusion, and moratorium.
There are questions regarding the applicability of Erikson’s and Marcia’s theories to people of all racial, cultural, and ethnic backgrounds.
Glasser theories why some people develop a “success identity,” while others develop a “failure identity.”
LO 2 Examine race, culture, ethnicity, and identity development.The Ratial/Cultural Identity Development Model describes a five-stage process: conformity, disso-nance, resistance and immersion, introspection, and integrative awareness. Communities and schools can strengthen racial and cultural identity development for adolescents.
Ethical Questions 7.5
EP 1
Does a person have the right to take his or her own life? What if the person is terminally ill or in chronic, severe pain?
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3 6 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 3 Explore moral development (including Kohlberg’s theory, Gilligan’s approach, and a social learning perspective).Kohlberg’s theory of moral development has three levels: preconventional, conventional, and postcon-ventional. Gilligan’s theory on moral development, which is more relevant to women, establishes three levels: orientation to personal survival, goodness as self-sacrifice, and the morality of nonviolent respon-sibility, in addition to the two transitions involved. A social learning theory perspective on moral develop-ment applies learning theory principles to the devel-opment of moral behavior.
LO 4 Review Fowler’s theory of faith development.Fowler proposes a seven-stage theory of faith de-velopment in spirituality that parallels Piaget’s stages of intellectual growth; the stages are primal or undifferentiated faith, intuitive-projective faith, mythic-literal faith, synthetic-conventional faith, individuative-reflective faith, conjunctive faith, and universalizing faith.
LO 5 Assess empowerment through assertiveness and assertiveness training.People need to distinguish between nonassertive, ag-gressive, and assertive styles of interaction. Both so-cial workers and their clients have specific assertive rights, which are based on a feeling of self-worth. So-cial workers and clients can learn and use assertiveness by practicing the 13 steps of assertiveness training.
LO 6 Explore suicide in adolescence.Potential causes of suicide include increased stress, family issues, and psychological variables. The SAD PERSONS scale evaluates ten factors: sex, age, de-pression, previous attempts, ethanol abuse, rational thinking loss, social supports lacking, organized plan, no spouse, and sickness. Other warning signs of suicide include a sudden change of mood and the giving away of precious possessions.
Reactions to a suicide threat include remaining calm, being supportive, identifying the immediate problem, identifying strengths, decreasing isolation, exploring past coping mechanisms, avoiding clichés, and examining potential options. Examples of community empowerment include the creation of task forces to address the issue of suicide prevention,
crisis intervention telephone lines, peer-helping programs, and training programs for community professionals and other caregivers.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and behaviors are discussed in this chapter.
EP 6a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies;
EP 7b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies;
EP 8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies. (All of this chapter.)Material on concepts and theories about human be-havior and the social environment affecting psycho-logical development in adolescence are presented throughout this chapter.
EP 1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 327, 334, 338, 341, 359)Ethical questions are posed.
EP 2a. Apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro, mezzo, and macro levels;
EP2c. Apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies (pp. 329–333, 341–343, 351–359)Diversity content is presented on: lesbian and gay adolescents, spirituality, and adolescent Hispanic females
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzing, videos, and more.
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3 61
Social Development in aDoleScence
Clay
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Laura Sardina is 19 years old and is wondering what the future holds for her. She lives with her parents and has a job as a hotel maid, for which she receives the minimum hourly wage. She has frequent arguments with her mother, and both of her parents have encouraged her to get a better-paying job so that she can become self-supporting and move out of the house. She realizes that a minimum-wage job will not enable her to live in an apartment, buy a car, buy clothes and food, and have sufficient money for entertainment.
Laura was raised in a middle-class family. Her brother is attending college to become a minister. Religion has always been an important aspect of Laura’s parents’ lives, but not
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3 62 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
of Laura’s, She detests going to church. Her parents have often called her “stupid” and negatively compared her to her brother, who they believe can do no wrong. This dispar-agement of Laura has in many ways become a self-fulfilling prophecy. She repeated a grade in elementary school, seldom studied, and often received failing grades.
In school, she saw herself as a failure and hung out with other students who viewed themselves as failures. In high school, she frequently skipped school and partied. Eight weeks before graduation, she was expelled for skipping too much school. Her parents and the school system had tried numerous times to motivate Laura to apply herself in school; she even had a number of individual sessions with three different social workers and a psychiatrist.
Laura’s parents are especially irate when she leaves home for three or four days at a time and parties in an abandoned house in the inner city of Milwaukee. She has lied to her parents about her sexual activities, when the truth is she has a variety of partners. For-tunately, she is taking birth control pills; however, she does not always use a condom to protect herself from sexually transmitted diseases. Some of Laura’s male friends are putting pressure on her to become a prostitute so that there will be more money to buy drugs and party. Laura and her friends have had several encounters with the police for shoplifting, running away from home, drinking liquor under age, kicking police officers while being arrested, and driving in high-speed auto chases after radar detected they were speeding.
Laura is asking herself a number of questions: Should she prostitute herself? Or should she stop associating with her friends and try to make peace with her parents by getting a high school education and a better-paying job? Whenever she has tried to achieve the middle-class goals of her parents, they have criticized her as being a failure. She won-ders what her chances are of heading in a better direction this time. The one thing she has found enjoyable in life is partying with her friends, but she realizes her friends are getting her in trouble with the police. She is worried that cutting ties with her friends will result in living a life in which she will be continually rejected and put down by others. She wants a better-paying job but realizes her chances are not good, especially because she hasn’t completed high school. She wants a one-to-one relationship with a caring male, but because she has a low self-concept, the only thing she feels that males will find attrac-tive about her is sexual intercourse. This is one reason she has had multiple sex partners. She is increasingly concerned that being so sexually active is not right and may result in her acquiring a sexually transmitted disease (such as AIDS). What should she do about all of these concerns? She is deeply perplexed and confused.
A PerspectiveThis chapter will focus primarily on the social changes and some social problems encoun-tered by adolescents. The social growth from puberty to age 19 involves a number of passages: from being dependent on parents to becoming more independent, from adjust-ing to puberty to establishing a sexual identity, from beginning to date to serious dating and perhaps marrying, from being a child with parents to sometimes parenting children, from earning money from babysitting to having a full-time job or attending college, from buying baseball gloves and playing ball to buying a car, and from drinking soda to drinking beer and hard liquor and experimenting with drugs. The pressures and stresses of this time period produce many casualties who suffer from a variety of problems.
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 6 3
LO 1 Describe the Social Development Changes That Adolescents Undergo
Social Development Changes in AdolescenceDuring adolescence, people move from dependence on parents to becoming more independent and es-tablishing peer relationships and perhaps intimate relationships.
Movement from Dependence to IndependenceYoung people often are in a conflict between want-ing to be independent of their parents but on an-other level realizing their parents are providing for many of their wants and needs: food, shelter, clothes, emotional support, spending money, and so on. Many young people see their parents as hav-ing shortcomings and conclude that they know more than their parents. Yet when their car breaks down and they have no idea of how to fix it, mom or dad almost always knows what to do to get it fixed.
In the pursuit of independence, adolescents often rebel against their parents’ attempts to guide them and reject their views as being out-of-date and stu-pid. They sometimes do things to shock their par-ents, as if to say “See, I’m my own person, and I’m going to live my life my way!” Interestingly, once young people become more independent in their 20s and have to pay their own bills, they tend to have a greater appreciation for their parents’ knowledge. Mark Twain noted (as quoted in Papalia & Olds,
1981, p. 375), “When I was fourteen my father knew nothing, but when I was twenty-one, I was amazed at how much the old man had learned in those seven years.”
Children who are raised in families in which the parents have provided opportunities to learn self-reliance, responsibility, and self-respect tend to make a smoother transition from dependency to adult-hood interdependence. Children who are raised in families where the parents are overly permissive or take little interest in their children’s behavior tend to have greater difficulty making the transition to adulthood. These young people lack structure or a system of standards and values to gauge whether their behavior is suitable and their decisions are ap-propriate. Children who have overly protective par-ents also have difficulty making this transition; they usually do not learn how to assume responsibilities or make important decisions.
Some parents are wary about their children grow-ing up. In particular, some fathers and mothers be-come alarmed and uncomfortable when their “little girl” starts dating. Many parents worry that their daughter may become sexually involved and preg-nant, which they believe will interfere with their dreams and hopes for her having a good life. When teenagers assert their right to becoming more inde-pendent, it changes the components of the family system.
Any change in the components of the system will create tension within the family. This tension is expressed by teens with such statements as “You don’t understand me,” “Get off my back,” “I know what I’m doing—don’t treat me like a baby,” and “Chill out.”
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Describe the social development changes that adolescents undergoLO 2 Describe some major problems encountered by this age group: emotional and behavior problems, crime and delinquency, delinquent gangs, and eating disordersLO 3 Understand theoretical material on the causes and treatments of these problemsLO 4 Understand material on social work with groups, including theories about group development and theories about group leadership
EP 6aEP 7b
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3 6 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Parents may feel hurt by what they perceive as a lack of appreciation or gratitude. Common areas of conflict between parents and adolescents are home chores, use of time, attitude toward studies, expen-ditures of money, morals and manners, choice of friends, clothes selection, use of phone, dating prac-tices, and use of car.
How should parents seek to cope with thrusts of independence from their teenagers? A key is keeping the lines of communication open. All teenagers need help, even if they sometimes do not recognize this
need or seem ungrateful for help that is given. Teenag-ers need to feel that their parents are a resource they can turn to. If communication is severed, teenagers have only their peers to turn to—and suggestions and advice from another teenager are apt to be less con-structive (and potentially more destructive) in resolv-ing a dilemma than suggestions from a responsible adult. Keeping the lines of communications open is admittedly easier said than done. It requires work! Highlight 8.1 offers some techniques for effective communication between adults and young people.
HIGHLIGHT 8.1
interaction in Families: effective communication Between parents and childrenThomas Gordon (1970), in his book Parent Effectiveness Training, identified the following four communication techniques designed to improve relationships between parents and their children.
Active ListeningThis technique is recommended for use when a child indicates that he or she has a problem—for example, when a 16-year-old daughter looks in a mirror and states, “I’m fat and ugly—everyone but me has a boyfriend.” For such situations, Gordon recommends that the parent use active listening.
The steps involved in active listening are these: The receiver of a message tries to understand what the sender’s message means or what the sender is feeling. The receiver then puts this understanding into his or her own words and returns this understanding for the sender’s verification. In using this approach, the receiver does not send a message of his or her own, such as asking a question, giving advice, expressing feelings, or giving an opinion. The aim is to feed back only what he or she feels the sender’s message meant. An active listening response: to the 16-year-old girl in the previous example might be, “You want very much to have a boyfriend and think the reason you don’t is related to your physical appearance.” An active listening response involves either reflecting feelings or restating content.
Dr. Gordon lists a number of advantages to using active listening. It facilitates problem solving by young people, which fosters the development of responsibility. By talking a problem through, a person is more apt to identify the root of the problem and arrive at a solution than by merely thinking about a problem. When a teenager feels his or her parents are listening, a byproduct is that he or she will be more apt to listen to the parents’ point of view. In addition, the
relationship between, parent and youth is apt to be improved because children, feel they are being heard and understood. Finally, the approach helps a teen to explore, recognize, and express his or her feelings.
Certain parental attitudes are required to use this technique. The parent must view the young person as being a separate person with his or her own feelings. The parent must be able to accept the youth’s feelings, whatever they may be. The parent should genuinely want to be helpful and must want to hear what the child has to say. Additionally, the parent must have trust in the child’s capacities to handle problems and feelings.
“I”-MessagesMany occasions arise when a young person causes a problem for the parent. For example, a son may turn up the stereo so high that the music is irritating, or he may stay out after curfew hours, or he may recklessly drive an auto. Confronted with such situations, many parents send either a solution message (they order, direct; command, warn, threaten, preach, moralize, or advise), or a put-down message (they blame, judge, criticize, ridicule, or name-call). Solution and put-down messages can have devastating effects on a child’s self-concept and are generally counterproductive in helping a child become responsible.
Solution and put-down messages are primarily you-messages: “You do what I say,” “Don’t you do that,” “Why don’t you be good,” “You’re lazy,” “You should know better.”
Dr. Gordon advocates that parents should instead send I-messages for those occasions when a teenager is causing a problem for the parent. For example, consider a parent who is riding in a car with the son driving and exceeding the speed limit. Instead of the parent saying, “Slow down, you idiot,
(continued)
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 65
before you get us killed,” Dr. Gordon urges the parent to use an I-message: “I feel frightened when driving this fast.”
I-messages, in essence, are nonblaming messages that communicate only how the sender of the message believes the receiver is adversely affecting the sender. I-messages do not provide a solution, nor are they put-down messages. It is possible to send an I-message without using the word I (“Driving this fast really frightens me”). The essence of an I-message involves sending a nonblaming message of how the parent feels the child’s behavior is affecting the parent.
You-messages are generally put-downs that either convey to youths that they should do something or that convey to them how bad they are In contrast, I-messages communicate to young people much more honestly the effect of the behavior on the parent. I-messages are also more effective because they help teenagers learn to assume responsibility for their own behavior. An I-message tells a teenager that the parent is trusting the teen to respect the parent’s needs and that the parent is trusting him or her to handle the situation constructively.
You-messages frequently lead to an argument between parent and youth; I-messages are much less likely to do so. I-messages lead to honesty and openness in a relationship, and generally foster intimacy. Teenagers, as well as adults, often do not know how their behavior affects others. I-messages produce startling results; parents frequently report that then teenagers express surprise upon learning how then-parents really feel.
Note that I-messages will work only if the youth does not want his actions to adversely affect his parent. If the youth does not want to cause discomfort in his parent, he will seek to change his adversive behavior when informed by an I-message of how he is adversely affecting his parent. However, if the youth enjoys causing discomfort in his parent, then the use of an I-message by the parent is apt to result in an increase in the youth’s adversive behavior because he is how more fully aware of how to cause discomfort in the parent.
No-Lose Problem SolvingIn every parent-teenager relationship, there are inevitably situations in which the youth continues to behave in a way that interferes with the needs of the parent. Conflict is part of life and is not necessarily bad. Conflict is bound to occur because people are different and have different needs and wants, which at times do not match. What is important is not how frequently conflict arises, but how the conflicts get resolved. Generally, in a conflict between parent and youth, a power struggle is created.
In many families, the power struggle is typically resolved by one of two win-lose approaches. Most parents try to resolve the conflict by having the parent win and the young person lose. Psychologically, parents almost always are recognized as having greater authority. The outcome of the parents’
winning is that it creates resentment in the teenager toward his or her parents, leads to low motivation for the teenager to carry out the solution, and does not provide an opportunity for him or her to develop self-discipline and self-responsibility. Such teenagers are likely to react by becoming either hostile, rebellious, and aggressive, or submissive, dependent, and withdrawing.
In other families, fewer in number, the win-lose conflict is resolved by the parents’ giving in to their teenagers out of fear of frustrating them or fear of conflict. In such families, teenagers come to believe that their needs are more important than anyone else’s. They generally become self-centered, selfish, demanding, impulsive, and Uncontrollable. They are viewed as being spoiled, have difficulty in interacting with peers, and lack respect for the property of feelings of others.
Of course, few parents use either approach exclusively. Oscillating between the two approaches is common. There is evidence that both approaches lead to the development of emotional problems in children (Gordon, 1970).
Gordon seriously questions whether power is necessary or justified in a parent–teenager relationship. For one reason, as teenagers grow older, they become less dependent and parents gradually lose their power. Rewards and punishments that worked in young years become less effective as youths grow older. Teenagers resent those who have power over them, and parents frequently feel guilty after using power. Gordon believes that parents continue to use power because they have had little experience in using nonpower methods of influence.
Gordon suggests a new approach, the no-lose approach to solving conflicts. In this approach, parents and youth solve their conflicts by finding their own unique solutions acceptable to both.
The no-lose approach is simple to state: Each person in the conflict treats the other with respect, neither person tries to win the conflict by the use of power, and a creative solution acceptable to both parties is sought. The two basic premises are (I) that all people have the right to have their needs met and (2) that what is in conflict between the two parties involved is not their needs but their solutions to those needs.
Gordon (1970, p. 237) lists the following six steps in the no-lose method:
1. Identifying and defining the heeds of each person2. Generating possible alternative solutions3. Evaluating the alternative solutions4. Deciding on the best acceptable solution5. Working out ways of implementing the solution6. Following up to evaluate how it worked
This approach motivates youths to carry out the solution because they have participated in the decision. It develops their thinking skills and a sense of responsibility. It requires less enforcement, eliminates the need for power, and improves relationships between parents and teenagers. It also
HIGHLIGHT 8.1 (continued)
(continued)
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3 6 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
develops their problem-solving skills. Conflict resolution strategies are more fully described m Chapter 12.
Collisions of ValuesCollisions of values are common between parents and then-children, particularly as the children become adolescents and young adults. Likely areas of conflict include values about sexual behavior, clothing, religion, choice of friends, education, plans for the future, use of drugs, hairstyles, and eating habits. In these areas, emotions run strong, and parents generally seek to influence their offspring to follow the values the parents hold as important. Teenagers, on the other hand, often think their parents’ values are old-fashioned and declare that they want to make their own decisions about these matters.
Gordon identifies three constructive ways in which parents and teenagers can seek to resolve these conflicts. (For the sake of simplicity, we will use the term mother in describing what should be done—a father or a teenager can also use these same techniques.)
The first way a mother can influence her offspring’s values is to model the values she holds as important. If she values honesty, she should be honest. If she values responsible use of alcohol, she should exhibit a responsible model. If she values openness, she should be open. She needs to ask herself if she is living according to the values she professes. If her values
and behavior are incongruent in certain areas, she needs to change either her values or her behavior in the direction of congruency. Congruence between behavior and values is important if she wants to be an effective model.
The second way she can influence her teenagers’ values is to act as a consultant to them. There are some do’s and don’ts of a good consultant. First of all, a good consultant finds out whether the other person would like her consultation. If the answer is yes, she then makes sure she has all the available pertinent facts. She then shares these facts—once—so that the young person understands them. She then leaves him or her the responsibility for deciding whether to follow the advice. A good consultant is neither uninformed nor a nag; otherwise she is not apt to be used as a consultant again.
The third way for a mother to reduce tensions over values issues is to modify her values. By examining the values held by her teenagers, she may realize their values have merit, and she may move toward their values or at least toward an understanding of why they hold them.
Note that all of these techniques for more effective communication can be used to improve communication and relationships in practically all interactions, such as adult-adult and counselor-client The techniques are much broader in application than just a parent–teenager interaction.
Source: Adapted from Charles Zastrow, The Practice of Social. Work, 2nd ed. (Homewood, IL: Dorsey, 1985). © 1985 The Dorsey Press.
HIGHLIGHT 8.1 (continued)
The task of becoming independent involves at-taining emotional, social, and economic indepen-dence. Emotional independence involves progressing from emotional dependence on parents or others to increased independence while still being able to maintain close emotional ties; it involves moving from a parent–child relationship to an adult-adult relationship. Emotional independence involves be-coming self-reliant with the knowledge that “I am put together well enough emotionally that I can fend for myself, but I am willing to share my feelings with others and let them become part of me.” Emotional independence involves receiving, sharing, and being interdependent, without being emotionally domi-nated or overwhelmed.
Social independence involves becoming self-directed rather than other-directed. Many adoles-cents are other-directed because they are so strongly motivated by the need for social acceptance that much of what the group says is what adolescents
think and do. Self-directed people think things out for themselves and make decisions based on their personal interests. Becoming socially independent does not mean becoming selfish. Socially indepen-dent people realize that their best interests are served by becoming involved in political, civic, educational, religious, social, and community affairs.
Economic independence involves earning sufficient money to meet one’s financial needs. Many older teenagers do not have special skills, so that obtaining well-paying jobs to meet their financial needs is very difficult. Economic independence also involves learn-ing to limit one’s desires and purchases to one’s abil-ity to pay. To become economically independent, it is necessary to develop at least one marketable set of skills that one can offer an employer in exchange for a job. Interestingly, the more money that people earn, the more material items they usually desire; from their improved financial position, they see a whole new set of material items that they “just have to have.”
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 67
Is Adolescent Rebellion a Myth?The teenage years have been called a time of ado-lescent rebellion. The rebellion is believed to include the adolescent being in conflict with parents, being alienated from adult society, engaging in dangerous and reckless behavior, being in emotional turmoil, and rejecting adult values.
A few adolescents do rebel, and fit this stereo-type. However, Margaret Mead (1935), who studied teenagers in Samoa and other South Pacific islands, found that when a culture provides a gradual, serene transition from childhood to adulthood, rebellion is not typical. Papalia and Martorell (2015) note that m the United States (and in most other countries), most teenagers feel close to their parents and value their parents’ approval. Although family conflict and engaging in risky behavior are more common during adolescence than during other parts of the life span, in most families, the difficulties do not cross the line to open rebellion.
Interaction in Peer Group SystemsAdolescents have a strong herd drive and desire to be accepted by their peers. Peers are an important in-fluence on adolescents. Some studies indicate that peers are more of a factor than parents in determin-ing whether a youth will become involved in serious juvenile delinquency (Papalia & Martorell, 2015).
However, a study by Patterson, DeBaryshe, and Ramsey (1989) indicates that the strongest predictor of delinquency is the family’s supervision and dis-cipline of children. The process of becoming delin-quent, this study found, starts out in childhood and has its roots in troubled parent–child interactions. Children get certain payoffs for antisocial behavior: They get attention or their own way by acting up, and they avoid punishment by lying or by cheating on school tests. Children’s antisocial behavior inter-feres with their schoolwork and their ability to get along with their classmates. As a result, these chil-dren—unpopular and nonachieving—seek out other antisocial children. These children influence each other and learn new forms of problem behavior from one another.
The particular kind of peer group that an ado-lescent selects depends on a variety of factors: so-cioeconomic status (most peer groups are bound by social class); values derived from parents; the neighborhood one lives in; the nature of the school;
special talents and abilities; and the personality of the adolescent. Once an adolescent becomes a mem-ber of a peer group, the members of that subgroup influence each other in their social activities, study habits, dress, sexual behavior, use or nonuse of drugs, vocational pursuits, and hobbies.
Not all adolescents join cliques. Some prefer to be loners. Some are already pursuing what they believe will be their life goals. Some may be busy babysitting for younger children in the family. Some prefer hav-ing only one or two close friends. Some are excluded from the cliques that exist in their area.
Adolescents tend to identify with other teenag-ers, rather than with adults or younger children. This identification may be due to the belief that most other teens share their personal values and interests, whereas younger and older people have more diver-gent interests and values. Compared to people in their 40s and 50s, adolescents view themselves as be-ing less materialistic, more idealistic, healthier sexu-ally, and better able to understand friendships and what is important in life.
Friends and peer groups help adolescents make the transition from parental dependence to indepen-dence. Friends give each other emotional support and serve as important points of reference for young people to compare their beliefs, values, attitudes, and abilities. In a number of cases, friendships forged during adolescence endure throughout life.
Empowerment of Homeless YouthYouth in poverty often experience a special sense of powerlessness and hopelessness; this is even more intensified for those who are homeless. Although no one knows exactly how many young people are homeless in the United States, homelessness among teenagers is a significant problem (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015). Homeless youth tend to experi-ence many serious difficulties, including those that are health-related and those involving the mental health, substance abuse, and unemployment of other family members, especially parents (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015). Few resources and supports ex-ist for such young people in their immediate social environments.
Rees (1998) proposes that social workers can help homeless youth become more empowered by help-ing them progress through four stages. The stages are based on the ability of youth to express themselves
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3 6 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
and their experiences through biographical storytell-ing. Stage 1 involves “understanding powerlessness” (p. 137). Young people must be allowed to express their despair, disappointment, fear, and hurt before social workers and others rush in to help them. They must get their feelings out before they can begin to focus on positive change.
Stage 2 is “awareness and mutual education” (p. 138). After expressing feelings, homeless youth should be encouraged to talk about their experi-ences, as painful as they have been. Articulating and sharing experiences can help young people organize their thoughts and identify themes characterizing their lives. Rees (1998) comments that “this stage of dawning awareness gives practitioners a chance to encourage young people to construct their stories so they can begin to think of different choices in their lives. Usually their stories reconstruct experiences of powerlessness. . . Such spelling out is a crucial part of empowerment” (p. 139).
Stage 3 is “dialogue and solidarity” (p. 140). Af-ter telling their stories, continuing to exchange in-formation and share feelings with others provides opportunities to learn from and support each other. Such discourse can involve their rights to educa-tion, services, income, housing, and legal assistance. They can help each other begin to formulate plans for empowering themselves and demanding access to resources. Together, homeless youth can establish solidarity, supporting each other in their quest for empowerment.
Stage 4 is “action and political identity” (p. 141). This involves a sense of self-confidence in one’s abil-ity to make progress, seek changes in conditions, and improve one’s overall quality of life. Political iden-tity is the sense that one has the right and power to seek improvements in life. Effects can include an improved self-concept, more effective communica-tion skills, better relationships with professionals and family, and more productive interactions with resource providers and legal system representatives. Rees (1998) furnishes two example of homeless youth experiencing empowerment. Sean’s empower-ment involved seeing that his future could become more than an early, violent death. He gained con-fidence in his ability to advocate for himself with healthcare professionals, the police, and resource providers. The second youth, Dean, indicated that for the first time he had hope that someday he would get a job and even live in a home of his own, things
he never thought were possible before. He began to like himself more and eagerly participated in a job-training program.
LO 2 Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Eating DisordersSocial ProblemsIn addition to the normal phases of social develop-ment, such as becoming more independent, a num-ber of situations and life crises tend to occur in adolescence (or in the years following adolescence). The following pages will focus on certain social prob-lems: eating disorders, emotional and behavioral problems, crime and delinquency, and delinquent gangs. The latter two can be viewed as macro-system problems because large systems are often involved in the planning and carrying out of criminal activity, and large systems are involved in investigating, pros-ecuting, preventing, and curbing criminal activity.
Eating DisordersEating disorders are occurring in epidemic propor-tions. Although they have existed for a long time, the dramatic increase in the number of individuals affected is now a major concern for mental health profession-als. The majority of people who have eating disorders are female; however, the number of males with eat-ing disorders is increasing. The three primary eating disorders are anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder. All three are serious disorders that create life-threatening health problems.
Anorexia NervosaAnorexia nervosa means “loss of appetite due to nerves.” This definition is inaccurate, because people with anorexia do not actually lose their appetite until the late stages of their starvation. Until then, they do feel hungry; they just do not eat. Anorexia nervosa is a disorder characterized by the excessive pursuit of thinness through voluntary starvation. The pre-dominant features of this disorder include excessive thinness, intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, a distorted body image in which anorexics view themselves as being overweight, and there may be amenorrhea (cessation of menses) in females.
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 69
Anorexics refuse to accept that they are too thin. They eat very little, even when experiencing intense hunger. They insist they need to lose even more weight. They erroneously believe that an ultrathin body is a perfect body, and that achieving such a body will bring happiness and success. As they lose weight, their health deteriorates and they tend to become increasingly depressed. Symptoms of physi-cal deterioration include reduced heart rate, lowered blood pressure, lowered body temperature, increased retention of water, fine hair growth on many parts of the body, amenorrhea in females, and a variety of metabolic changes (Koch, Dotson, Troast, & Curtis, 2006). Even while their health is deteriorating, an-orexics stubbornly cling to the belief that through controlling their body weight, they can gain control of their lives.
On the surface, someone who is prone to develop anorexia appears to be a model child. She is eager to please, well-behaved, a good student, and some-one who appears to get along well with her peers. She rarely asks for help, and she is unlikely to indi-cate that anything is wrong. Behind this mask is an insecure, self-critical perfectionist who feels she is un-worthy of any praise that she receives. She is also apt to be concerned about whether other people like her.
The development of this disorder usually pro-ceeds according to the following pattern:
1. It begins with a diet. Dieting for these individu-als usually begins just before or just after a ma-jor change occurs—such as entering puberty, breaking up with a boyfriend, or leaving home for college.
2. Dieting creates a feeling of control. At first the person feels better about herself because dieting is something she can do successfully. Soon, how-ever, food and the fear of becoming fat become the major concerns in life.
3. Exhausting exercise is added. The anorexic exer-cises excessively, such as running 10 miles before eating.
4. Health begins to fail. Weight loss and malnutri-tion begin, leading to mental and physical de-terioration. Although the person may sense something is wrong, she refuses to conclude that she needs to start eating more. Anorexia can lead to the shrinking of internal organs, including the brain, heart, and kidneys. As the heart muscle weakens, the chances of irregular heart rhythm
and congestive heart failure increase. Other com-plications include muscle aches and cramps, swell-ing of joints, constipation, difficulty urinating, inability to concentrate, digestive problems, and injuries to nerves and tendons. In addition, loss of fat and muscle tissue makes it difficult for the body to keep itself warm, which leads to the sen-sation of feeling cold. The unusual growth of fine body hair (especially on the arms and legs) may be the body’s response in seeking to make up for heat loss.
A large number of anorexics engage in excessive exercise for prolonged periods of time in an attempt to lose more weight. They prefer solitary activities (such as running and exercise machines) over team sports. At mealtimes, to avoid conflicts with others over eating so little, they are apt to say that they have already eaten, or if they are forced to be at the table with others, they may dispose of their food by slip-ping it into a container under the table. Because they are always hungry, anorexics are preoccupied with food, grocery shopping, nutritional information, and cooking. They may collect cookbooks and memorize calorie charts.
Anorexics, even in warm weather, tend to wear several layers of bulky clothing, or sweaters and baggy pants, to warm their cold bodies, and to conceal their thinness. (Their thinness often brings questions or criticisms from relatives and friends, so wearing bulky clothing is a way to avoid being ques-tioned.) Anorexics usually deny that they need help with their eating patterns; they insist their bodies are normal and attractive.
Anorexics tend to maintain rigid control over nearly all aspects of their lives. To avoid criticism, they often withdraw from others and are introverted. They often develop compulsive rituals involving exercise, food, housekeeping, studying, and other aspects of their lives. A favorite ritual is to weigh themselves several times a day. They may cut their small morsels of food into tiny pieces and then spend extended time eating each piece. They find security in discipline and order. To achieve greater control of their lives, they tend to avoid social activities, sexual relationships, parties, and friends.
Some anorexics occasionally yield to their hunger pangs and eat—and perhaps even binge. After eating and bingeing, they are apt to feel guilty because they failed in their efforts to always follow a restricted diet.
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370 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Anorexics tend to think in black-and-white terms. They view themselves, and others, as being right or wrong, successes or failures, beautiful or ugly, fat or thin. They do not deal well with complexity or shades of gray. Anorexics seek to be perfection-ists in all aspects of their lives, including relation-ships, school or job responsibilities, and personal appearance.
It is important that anorexics seek help from medical professionals, including primary physicians, psychiatrists, nutritionists, and social workers. There are a wide range of services available including out-patient services, day treatment programs, group homes, inpatient services, and residential treatment.
To prevent death by starvation, severe anorex-ics frequently need hospitalization. Studies estimate mortality rates of between 5 and 18 percent from a variety of medical complications, including heart attack, kidney damage, liver impairment, malnutri-tion, and starvation. Starvation weakens the body’s immune system, which leaves the anorexic vulner-able to pneumonia and other infections. Suicide fol-lowing severe depression is also a danger (Lagasse, 2015).
Bulimia NervosaThe term bulimia is derived from a Greek word meaning “ox-like hunger.” But the binge–purge cycle
that is characteristic of bulimics is triggered not by physical hunger but by emotional upset. Binge eat-ing is the rapid, uncontrolled consumption of large amounts of food. A binge may last from a few min-utes to several hours. Purging is the process of get-ting rid of the food eaten during a binge. The most frequent method of purging is self-induced vomit-ing. Other methods of purging include strict dieting or fasting, vigorous exercise, diet pills, and abuse of diuretics and laxatives. Some bulimics chew food to enjoy the taste and then spit it out to avoid calories and weight gain. Estimates of the incidence of bulimia nervosa among high school and college-age females range between 4.5 and 18 percent (Lagasse, 2015).
The development of bulimia tends to proceed ac-cording to the following pattern:
1. A diet is started. The person wants to lose weight and improve self-esteem. However, dieting in-creases hunger and leads to a craving for sweet, high-calorie food.
2. Overeating begins. The overeating is often triggered by stress such as anger, depression, loneliness, frus-tration, and boredom. Food helps to relieve hunger and also is a comfort for emotional pain.
3. Guilt develops. The person feels guilty about gaining weight in a society where “thin is in.”
Men with eating disorders still face cultural stigma despite a recent surge in awareness.
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Social Development in Adolescence 371
4. Purging is discovered. The person discovers that self-induced vomiting or other forms of purging will allow her to binge but not gain weight.
5. A binge–purge habit takes hold. Binge eating and purging become a way of coping with life and emotional pain. Bulimics tend to fear that others will discover their habit and view it as disgusting.
The average bulimic binge involves between 1,000 and 5,500 calories, although daylong binges of more than 50,000 calories occur in some bulimics. (The av-erage American’s food intake is about 3,000 calories a day.) Bulimics tend to binge on high-calorie junk foods, such as sweets and fried foods. Bulimics gener-ally feel considerable shame about their bulging and purging, but continue to resort to the binge–purge cy-cle as a way to relieve the pain of their daily problems.
Most bulimics are within a normal weight range, although some are somewhat overweight or under-weight. Obesity in adolescence may be a contrib-uting factor in the development of the disorder in some bulimics. The parents of bulimics are often overweight, and close relatives of bulimics have a higher-than-chance frequency of alcoholism and de-pression (Lagasse, 2015).
The usual age of onset for bulimia nervosa is late adolescence or early adulthood. Alcohol and other substance abuse are fairly common among bulimics. This is because the psychological dynamics that lead a person to abuse alcohol or drugs are similar to the dynamics that lead a person to be bulimic. Substance abuse may be easier to treat than bulimia, however, because a substance abuser can completely abstain from using alcohol or drugs, but a bulimic needs to continue to eat (which acts as a trigger to bingeing) in order to survive.
Because bulimia nervosa is seldom incapacitat-ing, the disorder can go undetected by family and friends for years. Physical complications, however, begin to develop. Chronic vomiting can lead to gum disease and innumerable cavities, because of the hydrochloric acid content of vomit. Vomiting can also lead to severe tearing and bleeding in the esoph-agus. Chronic vomiting may result in a potassium deficiency, which then may lead to muscle fatigue, weakness, numbness, erratic heartbeat, kidney dam-age, and, in severe instances, paralysis or death. Digestive problems range from stomach cramps, nausea, ulcers, and colitis to a fatal rupturing of the stomach. Sore throats are also common. Bulimia can also lead to diabetes.
Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance can oc-cur and in some cases cause cardiac arrhythmias and even death. Psychotropic drugs (such as tranquiliz-ers and antidepressant drugs) may affect the body differently because of changes in body metabolism. For bulimics who are substantially below normal weight, physical complications associated with an-orexia nervosa may also occur.
Both anorexia and bulimia lead to serious health problems. Stating the obvious, nutritious meals are needed for good health and survival. Anorexics risk starvation, and both bulimics and anorexics risk serious health problems. Fat synthesis and accumu-lation are necessary for survival. Fatty acids are a major source of energy. When fat levels are depleted, the body must draw on carbohydrates (sugar). When sugar supplies dwindle, body metabolism decreases, which often leads to drowsiness, inactivity, pessi-mism, depression, dizziness, and fatigue.
Although a few bulimics at times binge with friends, usually bulimics binge alone and secretly. Because bingeing leads to guilt, anxiety, and fear of weight gain, the process of purging serves as a rein-forcer for bingeing because purging often results in a sense of again being in control with a flat stomach. However, many bulimics feel shame and personal disgust about their bingeing–purging cycle.
Bulimics tend to be people pleasers who crave af-fection, attention, and approval from others. Unlike anorexics, they usually have active social lives with a number of friends and acquaintances. However, they are often filled with self-doubt and insecurity. Al-though they want close personal relationships, they also tend to fear such relationships, partly because they fear their eating disorder is more apt to be discov-ered. Many bulimics are sexually promiscuous, partly because they want affection and have low self-esteem. Some bulimics may shoplift and steal food. Most bu-limics feel they do not have control of their lives, and feel especially out of control around food. They worry that once they begin to eat, they will be unable to re-frain from bingeing. Bulimics are more likely than an-orexics to seek help for their eating disorder.
Binge Eating DisorderBinge eating disorder is the irresistible urge to con-sume excessive amounts of food for no nutritional reason. In most cases, binge eating disorder is a response to a combination of familial, psycholog-ical, cultural, and environmental factors. Binge eat-ing results in excessive accumulation of body fat.
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372 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Individuals with binge eating disorder tend to be overweight.
Treatment is recommended for persons whose body weight is more than 20 percent over ideal body weight (Lagasse, 2015). The more overweight a compulsive overeater is, the greater the health risks. Being overweight is correlated with such health problems as hypertension, elevated cholesterol lev-els, and diabetes. People who are overweight are also prone to heart attacks and other heart diseases.
Individuals with binge eating disorder have many of the characteristics that are commonly found in bulimics. A key distinguishing factor between the two disorders is that bulimics frequently engage in purging, whereas binge eaters seldom, if ever, do. Similar to bulimics, binge eaters tend to binge in an effort to temporarily escape painful problems in their lives. Individuals with binge eating disorder gener-ally feel considerable shame and embarrassment about their eating patterns and their weight. Alcohol and other substance abuse are common. Like bulim-ics, binge eaters tend to be people pleasers who crave attention and approval from others and who are of-ten filled with self-doubt and insecurity. Binge eaters have a high incidence of depression and are apt to have low self-esteem. Age of onset of the disorder is usually during adolescence.
Individuals with binge eating disorder are apt to display one or more of the following characteristics:
1. Frequent diet plan failures. Binge eaters attempt and fail at numerous diet plans. They are apt to try nearly every new diet fad briefly, believing that their latest effort will be the one that achieves permanent weight loss. No diet fad really works for them. Repeated diet failures result in a sense of hopelessness and self-deprecation.
2. Avoidance of health warning signs. Being exces-sively overweight eventually leads to health prob-lems, such as diabetes and hypertension. Binge eaters tend to ignore early warning signs of health problems, choosing instead to continue bingeing rather than making a commitment to developing healthier eating patterns.
3. Social isolation. Binge eaters often feel shame and guilt about being overweight; as a result, they may seek to reduce interpersonal contact. For some, avoiding interactions with others becomes a dominant behavioral pattern.
4. Nutritional ignorance. Binge eaters often lack adequate knowledge of basic nutrition. Many
have a distorted view of what constitutes a well-balanced and healthy diet.
5. Selective eating amnesia. Individuals with binge eating disorder are unlikely to conscientiously count their calorie intake. They are also apt to binge several times a day without keeping track of the frequency of their bingeing.
6. Binge eating as a response to unwanted emotions. When binge eaters feel unwanted emotions such as loneliness, frustration, insecurity, anger, and depression, they are apt to ease the pain of these emotions through bingeing. Bingeing temporar-ily takes their mind off their concerns, so it does work—but only during the short time while they are eating. After bingeing, overeaters are not only apt to feel the pain of their original unwanted emotions, which now return, but also to feel shame and guilt over their excessive eating.
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse impact on health, leading to in-creased health problems and/or reduced life expec-tancy. Obesity increases the likelihood of various diseases, including heart disease, certain types of cancer, breathing difficulties during sleep, type 2 diabetes, and osteoarthritis. Obesity is a leading pre-ventable cause of death worldwide, with increasing prevalence in adults and children. Authorities view it as one of the most serious public health prob-lems of the 21st century. Alarmingly, two-thirds of U.S. adults are either obese or overweight (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015).
Obesity is most commonly caused by binge eat-ing, lack of physical activity, and genetic susceptibil-ity. (More rarely, obesity may be caused by endocrine disorders and by certain medications— such as ste-roids, some antidepressants, and some medications for seizure disorders.)
The primary treatments for obesity are dieting and physical exercise. In case these two treatments do not work, antiobesity drugs may be taken to re-duce appetite or inhibit fat absorption. In severe cases, surgery may be performed to reduce stomach volume and/or bowel length—thereby reducing the person’s ability to absorb nutrients from food.
Interrelationships Among Eating DisordersAs noted previously, there are a number of differ-ences among the three eating disorders, but there are also interrelationships. Some people have
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Social Development in Adolescence 373
symptoms of both anorexia and bulimia, and are identified as having the disorder anorexia bulimia or eating disorders not elsewhere specified. Many of those who have anorexia bulimia occasionally move back and forth between being anorexic and bulimic. In addition, some binge eaters occasion-ally have episodes of purging, and at times fit the criteria for being bulimic. Koch and his associates (2006) indicate that it is important to conceptual-ize these three eating disorders as forming a con-tinuum, ranging from being overly thin to being excessively overweight:
Eating disorder symptoms and behaviors seem to exist on a continuum. On the extreme left are those struggling with anorexia, who achieve drastic weight loss by severely restricting food intake. Moving to the right toward the center are individuals with anorexic bulimia who eat and binge on occasion, but primarily maintain a much lower than normal weight by strict dieting and purging In the center are normal-weight bulimics who repeatedly binge and purge thousands of calories per episode, yet are neither significantly under or over normal weight. Although overly preoccupied with body shape and body image, it is not unusual for normal-weight bulimics to experience rapid weight fluctuations of ten or more pounds because of intense cycles of bingeing and purging. At the other end of the continuum, the binge eater will repeatedly eat excess amounts of food, gaining significant amounts of weight without engaging in any of the purging behavior associated with anorexia or bulimia nervosa. Individuals may move back and forth along this continuum, alternatively restricting or bingeing, depending on their circumstances and the progression of their disorder. (p. 28)
LO 3 Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatments of These ProblemsCausesMany factors contribute to the development of an eating disorder. The factors differ from one indi-vidual to another. Some bulimics and binge eaters may be genetically predisposed to these disorders.
Depression or alcoholism tends to be present in par-ents or other family members. People with an eat-ing disorder tend to feel inadequate and worthless. Their low self-esteem combined with their quest for perfectionism leads them to be intolerant of any flaws. They tend to compare themselves to oth-ers, and usually conclude “I’m not good enough.” A significant number of anorexics and bulimics have been victimized by molestation, rape, or incest (Lagasse, 2015).
Anorexics and bulimics have some similarities. Both are likely to have been brought up in middle-class, upwardly mobile families, where their moth-ers are overinvolved in their lives and their fathers are preoccupied with work outside the home. For the most part, bulimics and anorexics were good children, eager to comply and eager to achieve in order to obtain the love and approval of others. Both tend to have a distorted body image in which they view themselves as being fatter than others view them. Both have an obsessive concern with food. Their parents tended to be overprotective and did not allow them to become more indepen-dent and learn from their mistakes. Their parents still treat them as if they were young children rather than teenagers and young adults. A smaller number of anorexics and bulimics come from nonsupport-ive and non-nourishing families that were demand-ing, critical, and rejecting. Others with eating disorders were raised by parents who combined ob-sessive concern with criticism and rejection, which places the children in a double bind of wanting to protest but feeling guilty because their parents are so “caring.” Still others were raised by parents who have good parenting skills and show love and act appropriately with their children. In such families, other factors lead to the development of an eating disorder.
Bulimics are often overachievers, and in col-lege tend to attain high academic averages. Purg-ing for bulimics often becomes a purification rite because it is frequently viewed as a way to over-come self-loathing. They tend to believe they are unlovable and inadequate. Through purging, they feel completely fresh and clean again. These feel-ings of self-worth are only temporary. They are ex-tremely sensitive to minor insults and frustrations, which are often used as excuses to initiate another food binge.
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374 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Ethical Question 8.1
EP 1
Do you know someone who has an eating disorder? If so, what might you do or say that would be helpful to this person?
Impacts of Social ForcesOne reason for the increased incidence of anorexia and bulimia may be the increasing value that our society places on being slim and trim. Why are bu-limics and anorexics primarily women? Koch and his associates (2006) make a strong case that there are many more pressures on women to be thin than on men. Our socialization practices also overemphasize the importance of women being slender.
Eating disorders have become epidemic in the United States in the past 60 years. Before that time, society allowed all people, and especially women, to be rounder and heavier. Weight-gain products and breast enhancers were popular products that were purchased by thin women who wanted to look like Marilyn Monroe. However, norms for what is attrac-tive have changed.
Some authorities assert that our body size is par-tially genetically determined by “set point.” Koch and his associates (2006) note:
Researchers believe an eating disorder may develop after prolonged dieting when individuals try to achieve or maintain a body size that is in direct conflict with their biology. They maintain that one’s weight is genetically predetermined. This weight is referred to as the body’s set point, and family history is the best indication of what a person’s set point weight should be. According to the set point theory, efforts to reduce body weight below set point [are] resisted by an increase in appetite and lethargic behavior, and a reduction in basic metabolic rate, all designed to increase body weight. (p. 30)
TreatmentBecause eating disorders are complex and serious, professional intervention is generally needed. Treatment for an eat-ing disorder usually has the following EP 8b
three goals: (1) resolution of the psychosocial and family dynamics that led to the development of the eating disorder; (2) provision of medical services to correct any medical problems that resulted from starving, bingeing and purging, or being obese; and (3) reestablishment of normal weight and healthy eating behavior.
Many anorexics and bulimics who enter treat-ment for eating disorders want to be treated for their unhealthy eating habits, but still want to be very thin. These two objectives are incompatible. Unless anorexics and bulimics truly comprehend that ultra-thinness is unhealthy, they will soon return to their old behaviors. Treatments must be comprehensive and multifaceted because eating disorders are com-plex and multidimensional. Each person’s unique circumstances need to be carefully assessed so that the specific needs of each client can be treated.
The client may be treated on an inpatient or out-patient basis. Hospitalization of a person with an eating disorder is sometimes needed. Inpatient care should be considered for anorexics when weight loss continues or when there is an absence of weight gain after a reasonable length of time in outpatient treatment. It should be considered for bulimics who are unable to break the binge–purge cycle after a reasonable period of time in outpatient treatment. If a client with an eating disorder indicates sui-cidal thoughts or severe self-destructive behavior, inpatient care should be seriously considered. Hos-pitalization is usually necessary when physical com-plications require close medical supervision (e.g., when an anorexic is in danger of severe heart dys-function, or when a bulimic needs treatment for de-hydration and electrolyte imbalance). A binge eater may occasionally need to be hospitalized for medical conditions such as heart disease or problems associ-ated with diabetes. Because hospitalization severely disrupts a person’s life, it should be used only when necessary.
Individual psychotherapy plays a prominent part in practically all comprehensive treatment of people who have an eating disorder. Goals of individual therapy include the establishment of healthy eat-ing patterns, increased self-esteem, increased sense of power and control over one’s life, resolution of negative and unwanted emotions such as guilt and depression, and resolution of internal conflicts and personal problems. Individual psychotherapy may also have the goals of reducing stress, increasing
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Social Development in Adolescence 375
assertiveness, and exploring relationship issues and career options.
Because family dynamics are usually contributing factors to an eating disorder, family therapy is also important, particularly if the affected person is living at home. Other family members are always affected, and sometimes victimized, by the turmoil experi-enced by the individual with the eating disorder. Through therapy, family members are better able to understand the dynamics of the eating disorder and can make changes that provide increased support for the affected person. The family therapist seeks to im-prove family functioning, which facilitates the recov-ery of the individual. Family sessions are also helpful to eating-disordered individuals who are struggling with issues of separation from their primary family.
Group therapy is also an important intervention. It may be provided in a variety of forms, including self-help, psycho-educational, and behavioral therapy. Through group interaction, members are able to put then problems in perspective because they see that others have problems as serious as theirs. Groups also enable members to test out more appropriate interac-tion patterns. Members can also share their unwanted emotions and problematic behaviors, and discover ways to think and act in more realistic ways. Groups also provide interpersonal support. Groups are use-ful in confronting members about the health hazards of their eating patterns. Group treatment provides an arena for diminishing feelings of isolation and secrecy, sharing successful techniques for better cop-ing with common problems, demystifying eating dis-orders, expressing feelings, obtaining feedback from other members, and facilitating realistic goal setting.
Nutritional counseling is an essential component of any treatment plan. A registered dietician can provide information about proper nutrition and the body’s need for nutritious food. The dietician can provide information on the physiology of dieting and weight management, and can help the affected person to establish healthier eating patterns as well.
Because some persons with eating disorders are depressed, antidepressant medication is sometimes beneficial. Such medication is prescribed by a psy-chiatrist or physician. Couples therapy is sometimes needed when there is significant conflict in a cou-ple’s relationship. Some elementary, secondary, and higher education school systems are now developing prevention programs that seek to inform students about the risks of eating disorders and to identify
services for students who are beginning to develop an eating disorder.
LO 2 Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Emotional and Behavioral ProblemsEmotional and Behavioral ProblemsEmotional problems (involving unwanted feelings) and behavioral problems (involving irresponsible actions) are two comprehensive labels covering an array of problems. Emotional difficulties include de-pression, feelings of inferiority or isolation, feeling guilty, shyness, having a low self-concept, having a phobia, and excessive anxiety. Behavioral difficulties include being sadistic or masochistic, being hyperac-tive, committing unusual or bizarre acts, being overly critical, being overly aggressive, abusing one’s child or spouse, being compulsive, committing sexual deviations, showing violent displays of temper, at-tempting suicide, and being vindictive.
Everyone, at one time or another, will experience emotional and/or behavioral problems. Severe emo-tional or behavioral problems have been labeled as mental illnesses by certain members of the helping professions. The two general approaches to view-ing and diagnosing people who display severe emo-tional disturbances and abnormal behaviors are the medical model and the interactional model.
Medical ModelThe medical model views emotional and behavioral problems as a mental illness, comparable to a physi-cal illness. The medical model applies medical labels (schizophrenia, paranoia, psychosis, insanity) to emotional problems. Adherents of the medical ap-proach believe the disturbed person’s mind is affected by some generally unknown, internal-condition. That condition, they assert, might be due to genet-ics, metabolic disorders, infectious disease, internal conflicts, unconscious use of defense mechanisms, or traumatic early experiences that cause emotional fixations and hamper psychological growth.
The medical model has a lengthy classification of mental disorders that are defined by the American Psychiatric Association in the DSM-5 (2013) (see Highlight 8.2).
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376 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
HIGHLIGHT 8.2
major mental Disorders according to the american psychiatric associationNEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS include, but are not limited to intellectual disabilities (sometimes called cognitive disabilities), communication disorders (such as language disorder), autism spectrum-disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, specific learning disorder (such as impairment in reading), and motor disorders (such as developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and Tourette’s disorder).
S C H I Z O P H R E N I A S P E C T RU M A N D O T H E R PSYCHOTIC DISORDERS include, but are not limited to schizotypal (personality) disorder, delusional disorder, schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and catatonic disorder.
BIPOLAR AND RELATED DISORDERS include, but are not limited to bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, and cyclothymic disorder.
DEPRESSIVE DISORDERS include, but are not limited to disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (such as major depressive disorder), persistent depressive disorder, and premenstrual dysphoric disorder.
ANXIETY DISORDERS include separation anxiety disorder, specific phobia (such as fear of injections and transfusions), social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, and agoraphobia.
O B S E S S I V E – C O M P U L S I V E A N D R E L A T E D DISORDERS include obsessive-compulsive disorder, hoarding disorder trichotillomania (hair-pulling disorder), and excoriation (skin-picking) disorder.
TRAUMA- AND STRESSOR-RELATED DISORDERS include reactive attachment disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and acute stress disorder.
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS include dissociative identity disorder and dissociative amnesia.
SOMATIC SYMPTOM AND RELATED DISORDERS include somatic symptom disorder, illness anxiety disorder, and factitious disorder (includes factitious disorder imposed on self, and factitious disorder imposed on another).
FEEDING AND EATING DISORDERS include pica, rumination disorder, avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder.
ELIMINATION DISORDERS include enuresis, and encopresis.
SLEEP-WAKE DISORDERS include insomnia disorder, hypersomnolence disorder, narcolepsy, breathing-related sleep disorders (such as central sleep apnea), and parasomnias (such as sleepwalking type, sleep terror type, nightmare disorder, rapid eye movement, sleep behavior disorder, restless legs syndrome, and substance/medication-induced sleep disorder).
SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS include delayed ejaculation, erectile disorder, female orgasmic disorder, female sexual interest/arousal disorder, genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder, male hypoactive sexual desire disorder, and premature (early) ejaculation.
GENDER DYSPHORIA includes gender dysphoria.
DISRUPTIVE, IMPULSE-CONTROL, AND CONDUCT DISORDERS include oppositional defiant, disorder, intermittent explosive disorder, conduct disorder, antisocial personality disorder, pyromania, and kleptomania.
S U B S T A N C E – R E L A T E D A N D A D D I C T I V E DISORDERS include alcohol-related disorders (such as alcohol use disorder, and alcohol intoxication); caffeine-related disorders (such as caffeine intoxication); cannabis-related disorder (such as cannabis use disorder cannabis intoxication.); hallucinogen-related disorders; inhalant-related disorders; opioid-related disorders; sedative-, hypnotic-, or anxiolytic-related disorders; stimulant-related disorders (such as cocaine abuse); tobacco-related disorders; and non-substance-related disorders (such as gambling disorders).
NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS include delirium, major and mild neurocognitive disorders (such as Alzheimer’s disease, vascular disease, traumatic brain injury, substance/medication use, HIV infection, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease).
PERSONALITY DISORDERS include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal personality d i s o rd e r, a n t i s o c i a l p e r s o n a l i t y d i s o rd e r, b o rd e rl i n e personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder.
(continued)
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Social Development in Adolescence 37 7
PARAPHILIC DISORDERS include voyeuristic disorder, exhibitionistic disorder, frotteuristic disorder (such as recurrent sexual arousal from touching or rubbing against a non-consenting person), sexual masochism disorder, sexual sadism disorder, fetishistic disorder, and transvestic disorder.
OTHER MENTAL DISORDERS include mental disorders due to another medical condition.
MEDICATION-INDUCED MOVEMENT DISORDERS AND OTHER ADVERSE EFFECTS OF MEDICATION include neuroleptic-induced Parkinsonism and medication-induced acute dystonia.
OTHER CONDITIONS THAT MAY BE A FOCUS OF CLINICAL ATTENTION include relational problems (such as parent-child relational problems), abuse and neglect (such as child abuse and neglect, child sexual abuse, child psychological abuse, spouse or partner violence or neglect, and adult abuse by nonspouse), educational and occupational p ro bl e m s, h o u s i n g a n d e c o n o m i c p ro bl e m s ( s u c h a s homelessness), problems related to crime or interaction with the legal system, religious or spiritual problems, victim of terrorism or torture, personal history of military deployment, and overweight or obesity.
Source: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5, Fifth Edition by the American Psychiatric Association, 2013, Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
HIGHLIGHT 8.2 (continued)
The medical model arose in reaction to the his-torical notion that the emotionally disturbed were possessed by demons, were mad, and were to blame for their disturbances. These people were “treated” by being beaten, locked up, or killed. The medical model led to viewing the disturbed as in need of help; it stimulated research into the nature of emo-tional problems and promoted the development of therapeutic approaches.
The major evidence for the validity of the medi-cal model comes from studies that suggest that some mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, may be influenced by genetics (heredity). The bulk of the evidence for the significance of heredity comes from studies of twins. For example, studies have found identical twins to have a concordance rate (i.e., if one has it, both have it) for schizophrenia of about 50 percent (Comer, 2014). The rate of schizophrenia in the general population is about 1 percent (Comer, 2014). So when one identical twin is schizophrenic, the other is 50 times more likely than the average to be schizophrenic. This suggests a causal influence of genes, but not genetic determination, because con-cordance for identical twins is only 50 percent, not 100 percent.
Interactional ModelCritics of the medical (mental illness) model assert that such medical labels have no diagnostic or treat-ment value and frequently have an adverse labeling effect.
Thomas Szasz (1961a) was one of the first au-thorities to assert that mental illness is a myth—that it does not exist. Szasz’s theory is an interactional model that focuses on the processes of everyday so-cial interaction and the effects of labeling on people. Beginning with the assumption that the term mental illness implies a “disease of the mind,” he catego-rized all of the so-called mental illnesses into three types of emotional disorders and discussed the in-appropriateness of calling such human difficulties mental illnesses.
1. Personal disabilities, such as excessive anxiety, de-pression, fears, and feelings of inadequacy. Szasz said that such so-called mental illnesses may ap-propriately be considered mental (in the sense that thinking and feeling are considered mental activities), but they are not diseases.
2. Antisocial acts, such as bizarre homicides and other social deviations. Homosexuality used to be in this category, but was removed from the American Psychiatric Association’s list of men-tal illnesses in 1974. Szasz said antisocial acts are social deviations and are neither mental nor diseases.
3. Deterioration of the brain with associated person-ality changes. This category includes the disorders labeled as mental illnesses in which personality changes result following brain deterioration from such causes as arteriosclerosis, chronic alcohol-ism, general paresis, or serious brain damage
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378 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
following an accident. Common symptoms are loss of memory, listlessness, apathy, and deterio-ration of personal grooming habits. Szasz said these disorders can appropriately be considered diseases, but are diseases of the brain (i.e., brain deterioration that specifies the nature of the prob-lem) rather than diseases of the mind.
Szasz (1961b) asserted that the notion that people with emotional problems are mentally ill is as absurd as the belief that the emotionally disturbed are pos-sessed by demons:
The belief in mental illness as something other than man’s trouble in getting along with his fellow man, is the proper heir to the belief in demonology and witchcraft. Mental illness exists or is “real” in exactly the same sense in which witches existed or were “real.” (p. 87)
The point that Szasz and many others are striv-ing to make is that people do have emotional prob-lems, but they do not have mystical, mental illnesses. Terms that describe behavior, they believe, are very useful. For example, depression, anxiety, obsession, compulsion, excessive fear, hallucinations, or feel-ings of being failures describe personal problems that people have. But they assert that medical terms (such as schizophrenia and psychosis) are not use-ful because there is no distinguishing symptom that would indicate whether a person has, or does not have, the illness. In addition, Caplan (1995) points out that there is considerable variation between cul-tures regarding what is defined as a mental illness, and even within a given culture, psychiatrists fre-quently disagree on the medical diagnosis to be as-signed to those who are disturbed.
In a dramatic study, psychologist David Rosen-han (1973) demonstrated that professional staff in mental hospitals could not distinguish insane pa-tients from sane patients. Rosenhan and seven nor-mal associates went to 12 mental hospitals in five different states claiming they were hearing voices; all eight were admitted to these hospitals. After admis-sion, these pseudopatients stated they had stopped hearing voices and acted normally. The hospitals were unable to distinguish their sane status from the insane status of other patients. The hospitals kept these pseudopatients hospitalized for an average of 19 days, and all were then discharged with a diagno-sis of “schizophrenia in remission.”
Ethical Question 8.2
EP 1
Do you believe it is useful to society to label some people as mentally ill? Do you believe labeling someone as mentally ill may lead that person to continue to act irresponsibly?
The use of medical labels has severe adverse ef-fects (Comer, 2014). The person labeled mentally ill believes that he or she has a disease for which, unfortunately, there is no known cure. (Frequently the therapist believes this as well.) The label gives the labeled person an excuse for not taking responsi-bility for his or her actions (e.g., a defendant pleads innocent by reason of insanity). Because no cure is known, the disturbed frequently idle away their time waiting for someone to discover a cure, rather than assuming responsibility for their behavior, ex-amining the reasons why there are problems, and making efforts to improve. Being labeled mentally ill has other undesirable consequences. The labeled persons may lose some of their legal rights; they may be stigmatized in their social interactions as being dangerous, unpredictable, untrustworthy, or of weak character; and they may find it more dif-ficult to secure employment or receive a promotion (Comer, 2014).
The question of whether mental illness exists is important. The assignment of mental illness labels to disturbed people has substantial implications for how they will be treated, for how others will view them, and for how they will view themselves. Cooley’s “looking-glass self-concept” (1902) ap-plies here. The looking glass says we develop our self-concept in terms of how other people react to us. If a man is labeled mentally ill, other people are apt to react to him as if he were mentally ill, and that person may well define himself as being differ-ent and crazy, and begin playing that role. Authori-ties who adhere to the interactional model raise a key question: If we relate to people with emotional problems as if they were mentally ill, how can we expect them to act in emotionally healthy and re-sponsible ways?
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Social Development in Adolescence 379
Adherents of the interactional approach believe that people get labeled mentally ill for two reasons: They may have an intense unwanted emotion, or they may be engaged in dysfunctional (or deviant) behavior. Assigning a mental illness label to un-wanted emotions or dysfunctional behaviors does not tell us how the emotions or behaviors originated nor how to treat such emotions and behaviors. The rest of this section, based on a rational therapy approach, does both. It gives us an approach for identifying the sources of unwanted emotions and dysfunctional behaviors, and it provides strategies for changing them.
LO 3 Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatment of These ProblemsAssessing and Treating Unwanted Emotions: Application of Theor y to Client Situations
A variety of theoretical frameworks can be used for assessing and treating emo-tional problems. (A summary of these frameworks is in Zastrow, 1999.) The
rational therapy approach, described here, is one of the more useful approaches.
The primary developer of rational therapy is Albert Ellis (1962).
Many people erroneously believe that emotions are primarily determined by experiences (i.e., by events that happen to them). Rational therapy has demonstrated that the primary cause of our emo-tions is what we tell ourselves about events that hap-pen to us.
All emotions occur according to the following format:
Events(Our experiences)
↓Self-Talk
(The set of evaluating thoughts we give ourselves about facts and events that happen to us)
↓Emotions
(May include remaining calm)
This basic principle is not new. The stoic philoso-pher Epictetus wrote in the Enchiridion in the first century, AD, “Men are disturbed not by things, but by the view which they take of them” (quoted in Ellis, 1979, p. 190). An example will illustrate this process:
HIGHLIGHT 8.3
Self-injury in adolescentsIn working with adolescents, a difficult issue to face is the concept of self-harm or self-injury. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (AACAP) describes self-injury as “the act of deliberately destroying body tissue, at times to change a way of feeling . . . that it is seen differently by groups and cultures with in society” (2015, NP). In the DSM V, non-suicidal self-injury disorder (NSSID) has been identified as a condition in need of further study due to its prevalence, especially among adolescents (Zeggergvist, 2015). Signs of self-injury include cuts or burns on the legs, arms or abdomen, scratch marks, making abrasions on the skin, hitting oneself, picking at skin, or finding razors or box cutters in an adolescent’s bedroom (AACAP, 2015; American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy [AAMFT], 2016). It has been found that females tend to
self-injure more frequently than males and that rarely are adolescents who self-injure suicidal (AAMFT, 2016). Self-injury is a complex behavior with no key indicators for why it occurs. It is said that adolescents may self-injure due to wanting to get quick relief from emotional distress (creating a rush of endorphins in the body), difficulty talking about their feelings, low self-esteem, wanting to fit in with a crowd that engages in self-injury behavior, or a coping mechanism for other problems (AACAP, 2015; AAMFT, 2016). It is important to help these adolescents find new ways of facing these issues. Treatment options for adolescents who self-injure include individual counseling, family therapy, teaching problem-solving skills, developing positive self-talk, and encouraging the use of stress management skills (AACAP, 2015; AAMFT, 2016).
EP 8b
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3 8 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
EventJane Lewis studies extensively for her first human behavior exam, takes the exam, and receives a C.
↓Jane’s Self-Talk
“Gee, this is awful. I studied so hard for this exam, and bombed out. It sure looks like I’m going to fail this course. Human behavior is not for me. I’m simply dumber than other students. Since this is a required course in the social work major, it looks like I’ll never make it as a social worker. I’m a fail-ure. Maybe I should drop out of college right now, rather than continuing to waste my money, when I’ll never graduate anyway.”
↓Jane’s Emotions
Jane feels depressed, feels like a failure, is dis-gusted with herself.If on the other hand, Jane tells herself the follow-
ing about receiving a C, her emotions will be very different:
EventJane Lewis studies extensively for her first human behavior exam, takes the exam, and receives a C.
↓Jane’s Self-Talk
“Wow—I just got by on this exam. Nearly half the class got a C or lower on the exam, so it looks like I’m doing about as well as the others. All I need is a grade of C in this course to pass and ful-fill the requirement. I see where I made some mis-takes that I shouldn’t have made, so I think I will be able to do better on the next exam. I’ll also talk with the instructor to get some ideas on how I can improve in this course. I feared I had flunked this exam, and I wound up doing better than I ex-pected. I’m progressing satisfactorily in the social work major, but I think I can do better.”
Emotions (May include remaining calm)↓
Jane’s Emotions
Jane feels mildly anxious about receiving a C, re-lief that she hadn’t flunked the exam, optimistic about improving her grade on the next exam, and optimistic about passing the course and continu-ing in the social work major.
The most important point about this process is that our self-talk determines how we feel, and by changing our self-talk we can change any unwanted emotion. An unwanted emotion can be defined as ei-ther an emotion we want to change or an emotion we have that others have become significantly concerned about—for example, excessive depression that has continued since a loved one died several years earlier. It is possible that an emotion that is generally viewed as being positive can be an unwanted emotion. For example, if you find you are feeling happy at a fu-neral, you may want to change that emotion. Simi-larly, an emotion that is generally viewed as negative can be a wanted emotion in certain situations, such as feeling sadness at a funeral.
Changing Unwanted EmotionThere are only five ways to change an unwanted emotion, and only three of them are constructive: getting involved in meaningful activity; changing the negative and irrational thinking that underlies the unwanted emotion; and changing the distressing event.
Meaningful Activity The first constructive way to change an unwanted emotion is to get involved in some meaningful or enjoyable activity. When we become involved in activity that is meaningful, it provides satisfaction and structures and fills time, thereby taking our mind off a distressing event.
Practically all of us encounter day-to-day frustra-tions and irritations—having a class or two that are not going too well, having a job with irritations, or having a blah social life. If we go home in the eve-ning and continue to dwell on the irritations, we will develop such unwanted emotions as depression, an-ger, frustration, despair, or feeling of being a failure. (Which of these emotions we will have will depend directly on what we tell ourselves.)
By having an escape list of things we enjoy doing, we can nip unwanted emotions in the bud. Everyone should develop an escape list of things that he or she enjoys doing: taking a walk, golfing, going to a movie, shopping, doing needlework, visiting friends, exercising, and so on. By getting involved in things we enjoy, we take our minds off our day-to-day con-cerns and irritations. The positive emotions we ex-perience instead will stem directly from what we tell ourselves about the enjoyable things we are doing.
In urging people to use an escape list, we are not suggesting that people should avoid trying to
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 81
change unpleasant events. If something can be done to change an unpleasant event, all constructive ef-forts should be tried. However, we often do not have control over unpleasant events and cannot change them. Yet we always have the capacity to control and change what we tell ourselves about unpleasant events. It is this latter focus that is often helpful in learning to change our unwanted emotions.
Changing Self-Talk A second approach to changing unwanted emotions is to identify and then change the negative and irrational thinking that leads to unwanted emotions. Maultsby (1975) developed an approach, called Rational Self-Analysis (RSA), that is very useful for learning to challenge and change irrational thinking. An RSA has six parts, as shown in Highlight 8.4.
The goal in doing an RSA is to change an un-wanted emotion (anger, love, guilt, depression, hate, and so on). An RSA is done by recording the event and self-talk on paper. Under Part A (facts and events), simply state the facts or events that occurred. Under Part B (self-talk), write all of your thoughts
about A. Number each statement in order (1, 2, 3, 4, and so on). Also write either good, bad, or neutral after each self-talk statement to show yourself how you believed each statement reflected on you as a person. (The RSA example presented in Highlight 8.4 illustrates the mechanics of doing an RSA.)
Under Part C (emotional consequences), write simple statements describing your gut reactions/emo-tions stemming from your self-talk in B. Part D(a) is to be written only after you have written sections A, B, and C. Part D(a) is a “camera check” of the A section. Reread the A section and ask yourself, If I had taken a moving picture of what I wrote was hap-pening, would the camera verify what I have written as facts? A moving picture would probably have re-corded the facts, but not personal beliefs or opinions. Personal beliefs or opinions belong in the B section. A common example of a personal opinion mistaken as a fact is: “Marty made me look like a fool when he laughed at me while I was trying to make a se-rious point.” Under D(a), correct the opinion part of this statement by writing only the factual part: “I was attempting to make a serious point when Marty began laughing at what I was saying.” Then add the personal opinion part of the statement to B (“Marty made me look like a fool”).
Part D(b) is the section designed to challenge and change negative and irrational thinking. Take each B statement separately. Read B-l first, and ask yourself if it is inconsistent with any of the five questions for rational thinking. It will be irrational if it does one or more of the following:
1. Does not fit the facts. For example, you tell your-self no one loves you after someone has ended a romantic relationship—and you still have several close friends and relatives who love you.
2. Hampers you in protecting your life. For example, if you decide you can drive 30 miles home when you are intoxicated.
3. Hampers you in achieving your short- and long-term goals. For example, you want to do well in college and you have two exams tomorrow, which you haven’t studied for, but instead you decide to go out and party.
4. Causes significant trouble with other people. For example, you think you have a right to challenge anyone to a fight whenever you interpret a re-mark as being an insult.
5. Leads you to feel emotions that you do not want to feel.
HIGHLIGHT 8.4
Format for Rational Self-analysis (RSa)
A(Facts and events)
B(Self-talk)
1. 2. etc.
C(Emotional consequences of B)
D(a)(Camera check of A)
D(b)(Rational self-talk challenges of B)
1. 2. etc.
E(Emotional goals and behavioral goals for similar future events.) (Highlight 8.5 provides an example of an RSA; the example illustrates and clarifies what the symbols of
A, B, C, D, and E represent).
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3 82 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
If the self-talk statement is rational, merely write, “That’s rational.” If, on the other hand, the self-talk statement meets one or more of the guidelines for irrational thinking, then think of an alternative self-talk to that B statement. This new self-talk state-ment is of crucial importance in changing your un-desirable emotion. It needs to be rational and to be a self-talk statement you are willing to accept as a new opinion for yourself. After writing down this D(b-l) self-talk in the D (b) section, then consider B-2, B-3, and so on in the same way.
Under Part E, write down the new emotions you want to have in similar future A situations. In writing these new emotions, keep in mind that they will follow
from your self-talk statements in D(b). This section may also contain a description of certain actions you intend to take to help you achieve your emotional goals when you encounter future A situations.
In order to make a rational self-analysis work, you have to put effort into challenging the negative and irrational thinking with your rational debates whenever you start thinking negatively. With effort, you can learn to change any unwanted emotion. This capacity is one of the most important abilities you have. (Once you gain skill in writing out an RSA, you will be able to do the process in your head with-out having to write it out.) An illustration of writing an RSA is displayed in Highlight 8.5.
HIGHLIGHT 8.5
a Rational Self-analysis to combat Unwanted emotions Following the ending of a Romantic Relationship
A. Facts and EventsI dated a guy steadily for two months that I really thought I liked. I knew something was not quite right with our relationship. I was unable to figure out what it was until he finally said that he had been dating another girl for two years and was still seeing her. However, he promised that they would break up soon and urged me to “hang on” for a little while. Three weeks passed, and then I saw them speaking to each other one night. When she left, I went over to talk to him, and he seemed to be in a bad mood, i tried to get out of him what was the matter. Then, we began to talk about the other girl, and he said he could not break up with her for a while and we were not going to see each other at all for a while.” Then, I started to yell at him for various things, and the crying began.
D(a). Camera Check of AAll of this is factual.
B. Self-Talk D(b). My Rational Debates of B1. I hate him! (bad) 1. I don’t really hate him. He was good to me, and we did enjoy
the times we had together.
2. How could I have been such a sucker for the last two months? (bad)
2. I should not feel as if I was a sucker because I did not know, about the other girl until he finally told me.
3. All guys are jerks. (bad) 3. Guys are not all jerks. I have many male friends who are far from being jerks. In fact, I do not even know what a jerk is. I’ve never seen a jerk. Guys are humans, not jerks. It is irrational to label someone a jerk and then to relate to that person as if the label were real.
(continued)
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 8 3
HIGHLIGHT 8.5 (continued)
4. I’ll never date anyone else again. (bad) 4. I know I will date again, because I always have after other breakups.
5. I’m glad I know now where I stand for sure. (good) 5. That’s rational.
6. What did I ever do to him to be treated like this? (bad) 6. He told me I never did anything to have this happen. It was just a situation he got himself into, and now he needs time to work things out.
7. No one loves me. (bad) 7. How can I say that! I have a lot of close friends and relatives, and I know several guys who think highly of me.
8. I’m a failure. (bad) 8. I’m not a failure. I’m doing well in college and at my part-time job.
9. I’ll never find anyone I love as much as him. My life is ruined. (bad)
9. My life is certainly not ruined. I’m accomplishing many of my goals in life. With two million eligible guys in the world, there are certainly many other worthy guys to form a relationship with, I told myself the same erroneous things a few years ago when I broke up with someone else. I will eventually get involved in another relationship with someone else I love. I need to think positively and dwell on the positive things I’ve learned in this relationship.
10. This guy just used me and took what he could get. (bad) 10. Neither of us used the other. I’m even uncertain what “used” means. We enjoyed being together and had a lot of good times. He told me he has a lot of positive feelings toward me. He was forced to make a choice between two people, both of whom he enjoyed being with.
11. My life is over. I’ll never find happiness again. (bad) 11. My life is certainly not over. I have many positive things happening to me right now, and there are many things I enjoy doing. I also have a number of close relatives and friends who’ll be there when I need them.
12. This is awful! This is the worst thing that could happen to me. (bad)
12. Life is full of ups and downs It is a mistake to “awfulize” and to exaggerate how this breakup will affect my future. There are many other more dreadful things that could happen—such as a terminal illness.
C. My Emotions E. My Emotional and Behavioral GoalsOutward emotions were crying and yelling. Inner emotions consisted of feeling angry, hurt, depressed, embarrassed, a failure, and unloved.
I want to be able to change my unwanted emotions so that I no longer am angry, depressed, and hurt about this breakup. Also, I would like to talk to him in private and apologize for my behavior. After I become more comfortable with tins breakup, I will gradually be interested in dating someone else in the future.
This process of challenging negative and irratio-nal thinking will work to change unwanted emotions if you put the needed effort into it. Just as dieting is guaranteed to assist someone who is overweight to lose some pounds, so is this approach guaranteed to change unwanted emotions. Both, however, require an effort and commitment to use the process in order to make it work.
Changing the Distressing Event A third way to change unwanted emotions is to change the distress-ing event. Some distressing events can be changed by directly confronting the events and taking construc-tive action to change them. For example, if we are let go from a job, we can seek another; when we find one, we will feel better. Or if we are receiving failing grades, we can meet individually with our instructors
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3 8 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
to obtain their suggestions on how to do better. If we receive suggestions that are practical and have merit, we will feel better.
Social Development in AdolescenceNot all distressing events can be changed. For ex-
ample, you may have a job that you like but be forced to interact with an employee who displays behaviors you dislike. If you cannot change the behaviors, the only other constructive option is to bite the bullet and seek to adapt to the circumstances. However, when it is feasible and practical to change distressing events, we should seek to do so. If we are successful, we are apt to feel better because we will then give ourselves more positive self-talk about the changed events.
Destructive Ways to Change Unwanted Emotions Unfortunately, some people turn to two other ways to change unwanted emotions. One of these ways is seeking to temporarily relieve intense unwanted emotions through the use of alcohol, other drugs, or food. Unfortunately, many people seek to relieve unwanted emotions through the use of such mind-altering drugs as alcohol, cocaine, or tranquilizers. When the effects of the drug wear off, the problems and unwanted emotions still remain, and there is a danger that through repeated use a person will be-come dependent on the drug. Some people overeat for the same reasons. Such people are apt to become overweight or bulimic—or both.
The only other way to relieve unwanted emotions is suicide. This is the ultimate destructive approach to changing unwanted emotions.
Assessing and Changing Deviant Behavior: Application of Theory to PracticeOur thinking determines both our emotions and our actions, as depicted in the following diagram:
Events↓
Self-Talk↓
Emotions↓
Actions
To demonstrate this principle, reflect on the last time you did something bizarre or unusual. What self-talk statements were you giving yourself (i.e., what were you thinking) prior to and during the time you did what you did?
Thinking processes determine behavior. The rea-sons behind unusual or dysfunctional behavior can always be identified by determining what the perpe-trator was thinking prior to and during the time the act was being committed. Following are some examples of cognitions leading to dysfunctional behavior.
Cognition: A 17-year-old boy sees an unlocked Mustang and thinks, “Hey, this is really a neat car to take a ride in. Let me cross the starting wires, and take it for a drive.”
Behavior: car theftCognition: A 27-year-old man is on his second
date, is in his date’s apartment, and thinks, “She is really sexy. Since I’ve now wined and dined her twice, it’s now time for her to show her appreciation to me. She wants it as much as I do. I’ll show her what a great lover I am. She may protest a little, but I’ll overcome that with force. Once we get involved sexually, she’ll be emotionally attracted to me.”
Behavior: date rapeCognition: A 31-year-old bartender thinks, “Cocaine
gives me such a great high. Unfortunately, I don’t make the kind of money to buy as much as I need. I have no other choice but to buy more than I use, and then sell some of it for a profit.”
Behavior: drug traffickingCognition: A 48-year-old bookkeeper of a retail
computer firm thinks, “This is an awful financial mess I’m in. I’ve got so many bills: mortgage payments, gambling debts, and tuition payments for two kids in college. Hopefully I can win at the next poker game. But I need a stake. The only way to get it is to take a couple grand from this company and pay the money back in a few weeks. With me handling the books, no one will ever miss it.”
Behavior: embezzlement
Ethical Question 8.3
EP 1
Do you sometimes engage in unethical or dysfunctional behavior because of your negative and irrational self-talk?
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 85
The cognitions underlying each dysfunctional be-havior may vary considerably among perpetrators. For example, possible cognitions for shoplifting a shirt might be: “This shirt would look really nice for the wedding I’m going to on Saturday. Since I’m buy-ing a number of other items from this store, they will still make a profit from me even if I take this without paying for it.” Another may be: “This will be a chal-lenge to see if I can get away with taking this shirt. I’ll put it on in the fitting room and put my own shirt and coat on over it, and no one will see me walk out of the store with it. I’ll act real casual as I walk out of the store.” Or “My son really needs a decent shirt. He doesn’t have any nice ones to wear. I don’t get enough money from being on public assistance to buy my children what they need. I know my son is embarrassed to wear the rags that he has. I’ll just stick this shirt under my coat and walk out with it.”
Assessing human behavior is largely a process of identifying the cognitions that underlie unwanted emotions or dysfunctional behavior. The stages of this process are as follows:
1. Identify as precisely as possible the unwanted emotions and/or dysfunctional behavior that a client has.
2. Identify the cognitions or thinking patterns that the client has during the time when he or she is
having unwanted emotions or is displaying dys-functional behavior. There are two primary ways of identifying these cognitions. One is to ask the client what he was thinking prior to and during the time when he or she was having unwanted emotions or displaying dysfunctional behavior. If this does not work (perhaps because the client refuses to divulge what he or she was thinking), a second approach is to obtain information about the client’s life circumstances at that time. Once these life circumstances are identified, the profes-sional conducting the assessment needs to place himself or herself mentally into the life circum-stances of the perpetrator, and then reflect on the kinds of cognitions that would lead to specific unwanted emotions or dysfunctional behavior. For example, if the client is a 16-year-old female who has run away from home and is unemployed, it is fairly easy to identify (to some extent) the kinds of cognitions that would lead her to turn to prostitution.
A deduction from the principle that thinking processes determine dysfunctional behaviors and unwanted emotions is that in order to change these outcomes, the affected person needs to change his or her thinking patterns. These concepts are illustrated in Highlight 8.6.
HIGHLIGHT 8.6
our thinking Determines our Behavior and our emotionsOne of the authors was describing to a class the concept that our thinking primarily causes our emotions and our actions. A male student voluntarily self-disclosed the following:
What you’re saying makes a lot of sense. It really applies to something that happened to me. I was living with a female student who I really cared about. I thought though that she was going out on me. When I confronted her about it, she always said I was paranoid and denied it.
Then one night I walked into a bar in this town and I saw her in a comer hugging and kissing some other guy. I told myself things like, “She really is cheating on me. Both of them are playing me for a fool.” Such thinking led me to be angry.
I also told myself, “Tm going to set this straight. I’m going to get even with them. I’ll break the bottoms off these two empty beer bottles and then jab each of them with the jagged edges.” I proceeded to knock off the bottoms on the bar, and then started walking toward them. I got to within 8 feet of them and they were still arm in arm and didn’t see me. I began though to change my thinking. I thought that if I jabbed them, the end result would be that I would get 8 to 10 years in prison, and I concluded she isn’t worth that. Based on this thinking I decided to drop the beer bottles, walk out, and end my relationship with her—which is what I did.
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3 8 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 2 Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Crime and DelinquencyMacro-System Problems: Crime and DelinquencyA life event or social problem frequently experi-enced during adolescence is crime or delinquency. A crime is a violation of the criminal law. Practically everyone occasionally breaks the law. For example, if a person drives a car, it is likely that person has intentionally or unintentionally broken such laws as speeding, driving the wrong way on a one-way street, or making an illegal turn. Many people have also committed such offenses as jaywalking, taking some-thing of value from work, and perhaps some liqor violations. If a criminal is defined as someone who has violated the law, then in a broad sense we are all criminals.
Ethical Question 8.4
EP 1
Is it better to use a treatment approach or a punitive approach with criminal offenders?
The people who tend to get arrested and spend time in jail or prison are generally those who commit more se-rious crimes—such as armed robbery, burglary, or rape. On rare occasions, a person may be arrested, charged, and convicted of a crime he or she did not commit. This has adverse effects on the person’s emotional well-being, trust in the justice system, reputation, and finances.
Adolescents (and young adults) commit the bulk of crimes and are by far the most arrested age group in our society (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015). Juveniles can be arrested for committing all of the same crimes as adults. However, they can also be ar-rested for violating an additional set of laws involv-ing status offenses—acts that are defined as illegal if committed by juveniles but not if committed by adults. Status offenses include running away from home, being truant from school, violating curfew, having sexual relations, being ungovernable, and be-ing beyond the control of parents.
When arrested, juveniles are generally treated dif-ferently than adults. The juvenile court tries to act in the best interests of the child, as parents should act. Juvenile courts (in theory) have a treatment orienta-tion. In adult criminal proceedings, the focus is on charging the defendant with a specific crime, holding a public trial to determine if the defendant is guilty as charged, and, if found guilty, punishing the wrong-doer via a sentence. In contrast, the focus in juvenile courts is on the current physical, emotional, psycho-logical, and educational needs of the children as op-posed to punishment for their past misdeeds. Reform or treatment of the juvenile is the goal, even though the juvenile or his or her family may not agree that the court’s decision is in the juvenile’s best interest.
HIGHLIGHT 8.7
Cyber BullyingCyber bullying is new recognized as a serious problem! Cyber bullying is bullying that takes place using electronic technology. Examples of cyber bullying include sending mean text messages or emails, spreading erroneous tumors by email or posting them on social networking sites, and sending embarrassing (including nude) pictures of the victim to others, State and local lawmakers have taken action to prevent cyber bullying and protect children and adolescents. Each state addresses cyber bullying somewhat differently.
Cyber bullying causes victims to experience significant emotional and psychological distress which may include anxiety, fear, depression, and low self-esteem. A few victims may even commit suicide. Each victim’s response to cyber bullying is somewhat unique. Parents and teachers can use the following suggestions to curb cyber bullying:
1. Instruct students to never pass along harmful or cruel messages or images.
(continued)
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 87
2. Train students to delete suspicious email messages without opening them.
3. At home, parents need to supervise their children’s time online. Placing the computer in a common area is a step in this direction.
4. Schools need to develop a formal policy for curbing cyber bullying.
5. Instruct students on how to block communication from cyberbullies.
6. Encourage students to assertively ask friends who are cyber bullying to stop.
7. Encourage parents and teachers to talk to students about the importance of telling a teacher or parent about any cyber bullying that they become aware of.
8. Parents and teachers need to investigate the reasons why a student is withdrawn, depressed, or reluctant to attend school or social events.
HIGHLIGHT 8.7 (continued)
HIGHLIGHT 8.8
Sex traffickingHuman trafficking involves forcing people to engage in sex or provide labor against their will (Polaris, 2016). The global sex trade is one of the fastest growing forms of commerce, over $32 billion a year (Deshpande & Nour, 2013). Despite some individuals believing sex trafficking is something that only occurs in other countries, sex trafficking does occur in the United States. Although exact numbers are hard to determine due to the underground nature of sex trafficking, Polaris (2016) stated that since 2007, the national hotline was aware of 14,588 sex trafficking cases in the United States. Sex traffickers tend to recruit vulnerable youth, such as runaways, homeless, and victims of violence (Polaris, 2016). It is estimated that
one in six teenage runaways become victims of sex trafficking. (Polaris, 2016). Traffickers find adolescents on city streets, through social network, bars, the internet, or even schools (Polaris, 2016; Shared Hope International, 2016). Negative effects of sex trafficking includes the following: physical illness such as sexually transmitted diseases and broken bones, psychological trauma, and social isolation (Deshpande & Nour, 2013). Social workers can assist with sex trafficking by helping to identify victims of sex trafficking, serving on organizations and committees that address this issue, supporting legislation to fight sex trafficking, and educating others about the dangers of sex trafficking (Malai, 2014).
Of course, not all juvenile court judges live up to these principles. In practice, some juvenile judges fo-cus more on punishing, rather than treating, juvenile offenders. Court appearances by children can have ad-verse labeling effects, such as youths viewing themselves as delinquent and then continuing to break the law.
LO 3 Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatments of These ProblemsCausesWhy do people violate the law? There are many theories about crime causation. (For a review of these theories, see Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015.)
Crime is a comprehensive label covering a wide range of offenses, such as drunkenness, possession of narcotics, rape, auto theft, arson, shoplifting, at-tempted suicide, purse snatching, incest, gambling, prostitution, fraud, false advertising, homicide, and kidnapping. Obviously, since the nature of these crimes varies widely, the motives or causes underly-ing them must also vary widely.
According to the self-talk theory described by Zastrow and Navarre (1979), the reasons for any criminal act can be identified by discovering what the offender was thinking prior to and during the time when the crime was being committed. This the-ory derived from rational therapy is described earlier in this chapter. (A case example of this theory is pre-sented in Highlight 8.9.) The motive for committing any crime is precisely the reasons why the perpetra-tor thinks he/she should commit the crime.
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3 8 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
HIGHLIGHT 8.9
Self-Talk Explanation for Columbine MassacreOn April 20, 1999, Columbine High School in Colorado, near Denver, was under attack by two of the students. The school had 1,945 students enrolled. During lunch hour, in less than 15 minutes, two students, Eric Harris, age 18, and Dylan Klebold, age 17, shot and killed 12 students and one teacher. The two gunmen also wounded 21 other people. The two apparently wanted to kill as many people as they possibly could. The massacre could have been much worse because the gunmen had also placed over 30 bombs in the school. However, they were not able to detonate the bombs, as the police quickly arrived. When the police arrived, Eric Harris fired a shotgun into his mouth, and died. Dylan Klebold apparently killed himself by shooting himself in the right temple. This massacre was the most devastating school shooting in U.S. history.
Why did Harris and Klebold commit these horrendous crimes? We will never fully know. However, Eric Harris left a diary, as well as notes on his computer, that provide us with substantial clues to his thought processes and those of Dylan Klebold. (The two gunmen had linked their personal computers on a network.)
The diary indicated the two teenagers planned to kill upward of 500 students in their school using guns and homemade bombs. They also planned on attacking other schools. They then planned to run into the surrounding neighborhood and the downtown area, and kill neighbors on the street and in apartment buildings. Finally, they planned to either escape the United States and go live on an island or to hijack an airplane and crash it into the heart of New York
City. They planned the attack on Columbine High for about a year.
Some of the thought processes of Eric Harris follow:
I hate the f—world . . . If you recall your history, the Nazis came up with a “final solution” to the Jewish problem: kill them all. Well, in case you haven’t figured it out yet, I say, kill mankind: No one should survive. . . . I live in Denver, and dammit, I would love to kill almost all of its residents.
Harris railed against every conceivable person of color. He stated his hate in very negative, extremely derogatory terms. John Kiekbusch, one of the officers who read the diary, stated that Harris had a nondiscriminating hate against practically everyone else, including rich people, poor people, martial arts experts, Star Wars fans, people who mispronounce words, people who drive slow in the fast lane, and so on.
The diary indicated the two gunmen planned to take their lives if cornered by the police, which they did. It also indicated they just wanted to achieve notoriety, which they did, by hurting and killing as many people as they could. The diary also noted the two gunmen thought they were being teased, abused, and mistreated by Other students at Columbine High. Harris and Klebold admired Hitler, Nazism, and Nazism’s “Final Solution.” Harris and Klebold “viewed themselves as being above everyone else, as being superior to others, to the extent that they thought they constituted a two-man master race.”
Source: Dave Cullen, URL: http://www.salon.com/1999/09/23/journal_2/
How does society stop a perpetrator from con-tinuing to commit a specific crime? In a nutshell, the perpetrator has to come to the conclusion that the adverse consequences of committing that crime outweigh the benefits. Any society has a variety of tools/strategies to assist the perpetrator in arriving at the conclusion that he/she would be better off to no longer engage in committing that crime. A few of these strategies will be mentioned. Parents, school systems, and religious organizations can seek to in-still in children and adults that it is morally wrong to commit crimes. Self-help groups (such as gamblers anonymous) can provide support and guidance to those who are addicted to committing certain types of crime. Individual counseling, group counseling, and family counseling can be used to dissuade a per-petrator from continuing to engage in committing a
crime. The criminal justice system has a variety of penalties to assist a perpetrator in concluding that the consequences outweigh the benefits of commit-ting a crime, these penalties include release with a warning, fines, jail time, prison time, restitution to the victims, probation, parole following incarcera-tion, and death penalty.
What crime deterrent/prevention strategies are most effective? This is a difficult question to answer. What is effective for one perpetrator may not be ef-fective for another perpetrator.
It should be noted that dissuading a perpetrator from committing another crime is extremely diffi-cult. Recidivism rates are very high for most crimes; recidivism rates are measurements of the rates at which offenders commit additional crimes—as in-dicated by arrest or conviction baselines. Recidivism
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Social Development in Adolescence 3 89
rates of former prisoners indicate approximately 50 percent of males and 40 percent of females are reincarcerated (Cole, Smith, & De Jong, 2013).
LO 2 Describe Some Major Problems Encountered by This Age Group: Delinquent GangsMacro-System Problems: Delinquent GangsJuvenile gangs have existed for many decades in the United States and in other countries. In recent years in the United States, there have been increases in the number of gangs, the number of youths belonging to gangs, gang youth drug involvement, and gang violence. Violent, delinquent urban gang activity has become a major social problem. The scientific knowledge base about delinquent gangs is very lim-ited. There is no universal agreement on a definition of “gang” or on the types of groups that should be labeled as gangs (Regulus, 1995). In addition, no agreed-upon recording system exists, and no data on gang offenses are collected in systematic ways by governmental agencies.
The inadequacy of the knowledge base about delinquent gangs is a major obstacle to developing effective intervention strategies. The lack of consen-sus among investigators is indicated by the numerous and diverse categories that have been used by dif-ferent investigators to classify gangs: comer group, social club, conflict group, pathological group, ath-letic club, industrial association, predatory orga-nization, drug addict group, racket organization, fighting-focused group, defensive group, uncon-ventional group, criminal organization, turf group, heavy metal group, punk rock group, satanic organi-zation, skinheads, ethnic or racial group, motorcycle club, and scavenger group (Goldstein, 1991).
Four Types of GangsAn illustration of one categorization of gangs is pro-vided by Morales, Sheafor, and Scott (2010), who classified youth gangs into four types: criminal, con-flict, retreatist, and cult/occult.
The primary goal of criminal gangs is material gain through criminal activities. Criminal activities
include theft of property from persons or premises, extortion, fencing, and obtaining and selling illegal substances (particularly drugs). Drug trafficking of rock cocaine is presently a major source of income for criminal gangs.
Conflict gangs are turf-oriented and will engage in violent conflict with individuals or rival groups that invade their neighborhood or that commit acts that they consider degrading or insulting. Respect is highly valued and defended. Hispanic gangs are heavily represented among conflict gangs. The Code of the Barrio mandates that gang members watch out for their neighborhood and be willing to die for it.
Retreatist gangs focus on getting “high” or “loaded” on alcohol, cocaine, marijuana, heroin, or other drugs. Individuals tend to join this type of gang in order to secure continued access to drugs. In contrast to criminal gangs that become involved with drugs for financial profit, retreatist gangs be-come involved with drugs for consumption.
The fourth type of gang is the cult/occult gang. Morales et al. (2010) describe this type as follows:
The word cult, as used here, pertains to a system of worshiping the devil or evil. Occult means s o m e t h i n g h i d d e n o r s e c re t , o r a b e l i e f i n mysterious or supernatural powers. Not all cult/occult devil or evil worship groups are involved in criminal activity or ritualistic crime. The Ku Klux Klan, for example, may be seen as a cult group, and some KKK chapters, in spite of their hate rhetoric, are law abiding, whereas other chapters have committed criminal acts. The majority of occult groups are composed of adults, although some juvenile groups are becoming interested in satanic and black magic practices and are using them for their own gratification of sadistic, sexual, and antisocial impulses. They are not turf-oriented like conflict gangs but are typically found in middle-class locations. For example, a neo-Nazi subtype of white cult/occult gang groups are the Skinheads, whose racist, anti-Semitic, homophobic “gay bashing,” and other violent behavior has appeared in the South, Midwest, and West Coast. Their group structure and behavior comply with the gang pattern, including use of colors, tattoos, common dress and hairstyle, name, drug use, and criminal behavior (usually “hate” crimes). (p. 196)
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39 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Contradictions in Conceptualizing GangsContradictions abound in conceptualizing delin-quent gangs. Gangs are believed to be composed largely of ethnically homogeneous minority youths (African American, Hispanic, or Asian); yet some gangs composed of white youths exist. Most gang members are believed to be between the ages of 12 and 18, yet evidence indicates some gangs include and may be controlled by adults (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2015). Gangs are believed to be com-posed of males; yet some gangs have female mem-bers, and a few gangs consist exclusively of females (Regulus, 1995). Gangs are believed to be primarily involved in drug trafficking; yet some delinquent gangs have other illegal foci, such as burglary, rob-bery, larceny, or illegal drug consumption. Gang activity is thought to be primarily located in large, inner-city, urban areas; yet gang activity is flour-ishing in many smaller cities and in some suburbs (Regulus, 1995).
At the present time, there are inadequate statis-tical data on the number of gangs, the number and characteristics of members, and their criminal activi-ties. No uniform definition of a gang-related offense exists across police jurisdictions (even within the same state or city).
LO 3 Understand Theoretical Material on the Causes and Treatment of These ProblemsSociological Theories: Applications of Theories to GangsNumerous attempts have been made to explain why youths join gangs and why gangs engage in delin-quent or criminal activities. These explanations include biological, psychological, and sociologi-cal theories (see Goldstein, 1991, for a review). No consensus exists as to which theories are most use-ful, and insufficient research has been conducted to ascertain their validity. In order to illustrate the ex-isting theories, we will summarize four of them: dif-ferential association theory, anomie theory, deviant subcultures theory, and control theory.
Edwin Sutherland (Sutherland & Cressey, 1970) advanced his famous theory of differential associa-tion in 1939. This theory asserts that criminal be-havior is the result of a learning process that stems primarily from small, intimate groups—family, neighborhood peer groups, and friends. In essence, the theory states, “A person becomes delinquent
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Social Development in Adolescence 391
because of the excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to vio-lation of law” (p. 76). People internalize the values of the surrounding culture. When the environment includes frequent contact with criminal elements and infrequent contact with noncriminal elements, a per-son is apt to engage in delinquent or criminal activ-ity. Past and present learning experiences in intimate personal groups define whether a person should vio-late laws; for those deciding to commit crimes, the learning experiences also include which crimes to commit, the techniques of committing these crimes, and the attitudes and rationalizations for commit-ting them. Thus, a youth whose most admired per-son is a member of a gang involved in committing burglaries or in drug trafficking will seek to emulate this model, will receive instruction from gang mem-bers in committing these crimes, and will also receive approval from the gang for successfully committing these crimes.
Robert Merton (1968) applied anomie theory to delinquency and crime. This approach views delin-quent behavior as resulting when an individual or a gang is prevented from achieving high-status goals in a society. Merton begins by noting that every so-ciety has both approved goals (for example, wealth and material possessions) and approved means for attaining these goals (going to college, getting a job). When certain members of society want these goals but have insufficient access to the approved means for attaining them, a state of anomie results. (Anomie is a condition in which the acceptance of the approved standards of conduct is weakened.) Unable to achieve the goals through society’s legiti-mately defined channels, the individuals’ and gangs’ respect for these channels is weakened, and they seek to achieve the desired goals through illegal means. Merton asserts that higher crime rates are apt to oc-cur among those groups discriminated against (i.e., those groups facing additional barriers to achieving the high-status goals). These groups include the poor and racial minorities. Societies with high crime rates (such as the United States) differ from those with low crime rates because, according to Merton, they tell all their citizens that they can achieve, but in fact they block achievement for some of them.
Deviant subcultures theory offers another expla-nation for delinquent gang behavior. This theory asserts that some groups have developed their own attitudes, values, and perspectives that support
criminal activity. Walter Miller (1958), for example, argues that American lower-class culture is more conducive to crime than middle-class culture. He as-serts that lower-class culture is organized around six values—trouble, toughness, excitement, fate, smart-ness (ability to con others), and autonomy— and al-legiance to these values produces delinquency. Miller concludes that the entire lower-class subculture is deviant in the sense that any male growing up in it will accept these values and almost certainly violate the law.
Albert Cohen (1955) advanced another subcul-ture theory. He contends that gangs develop a de-linquent subculture that represents solutions to the problems of young male gang members. A gang gives them a chance to belong, to amount to some-thing, to develop their masculinity, and to fight middle-class society. In particular, the delinquent subculture, according to Cohen, can effectively solve the status problems of working-class boys, espe-cially those who are rejected by middle-class society. Cohen contends that the mam problems of working-class boys revolve around status.
Control theories (Hirschi, 1969) ask the ques-tion, Why do people not commit crimes? Theories in this category assume that all people would natu-rally commit crimes and therefore must be con-strained and controlled by society from breaking the law. Control theorists have identified three factors for preventing crime. One is the internal controls through the socialization process that society builds up in an individual; it is believed that developing a strong conscience and a sense of personal morality will prevent most people from breaking the law. A second factor is thought to be a strong attachment to small social groups, such as the family, which prevents individuals from breaking the law, because they fear rejection and disapproval from the people who are important to them. A third factor is that people do not break the law because they fear arrest and incarceration. Control theories assume that the basic nature of humans is asocial or evil. Such an as-sumption has never been proved.
Hirschi (1969) suggests that the prospects of delinquent behavior decline if the adolescent is controlled by social bonds such as affective ties to parents, involvement in school activities, success in school, high educational and occupational aspira-tions, and belief in the moral rightness of conven-tional norms. The weaker the social bonding, the
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39 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
greater the likelihood that an adolescent will become involved in delinquent gang activities. Social bond-ing is weakened by such factors as parental criminal-ity, parental difficulties such as excessive drinking and extensive unemployment, inadequate parental supervision and monitoring, parental rewarding of deviant behavior, parental modeling of aggressive behavior, and inadequate parental warmth.
Social Work Roles and Intervention ProgramsVarious programs have attempted to reduce delin-quent gang activities. These have included detached worker programs, in which workers join gangs and seek to transform antisocial into prosocial attitudes and behaviors; formal supervision of those gang members adjudicated delinquent through juvenile probation departments; placement of delinquent gang members in group homes, residential treatment facilities, or reform schools; drug treatment of gang members who have a chemical addiction; programs to support and strengthen families, particularly single-parent families in urban areas; and programs to prevent dropping out of school and to provide academic support (Goldstein & Huff, 1993).
The outcomes of such interventions have not been sufficiently researched. The factors that lead adolescents to join delinquent gangs and then to engage in delinquent activities are multifaceted and highly complex. It is clear that delinquent gang ac-tivities are on the increase in our society. The reasons for this increase are largely unknown. Also unknown are the most effective programs to reduce delinquent gang activities.
Of all the helping professions, it would appear that social work is best suited from the perspective of knowledge, values, and skills to develop interven-tion strategies to use with gangs. Gangs as a focus for practice find the social worker intervening with individuals, groups, families, organizations, and the community (i.e., micro-, mezzo-, and macro-level intervention).
Social workers intervene on a one-to-one level with a delinquent gang member in a variety of settings— as a juvenile probation officer, as a counselor at a group home or residential treatment facility, as a school social worker in a school setting, and as an alcohol and drug counselor in a chemical depen-dency treatment program. On a one-to-one level, social workers may assume the following roles: coun-selor, educator, case manager, and broker.
Social workers intervene on a mezzo level with a delinquent gang with a group approach; the worker is viewed as a “detached worker” or “gang group worker.” Working with gangs requires that the so-cial worker spend a considerable amount of time in the gang’s immediate environment rather than in the agency—hence the term “detached worker” or “street worker.” Spergel (1995) found that most gangs are receptive to a worker engaging the gang as a group within the purposes of social work prac-tice, and that a social worker can help urban gangs to change from being a destructive force to being a constructive contributor to the community while maintaining the gang’s right to self-determination. In working with gangs, a worker can function in the roles of group facilitator, educator, enabler, and ad-vocate in helping the gang obtain needed resources. The worker can also function as a negotiator or a me-diator when there is intragang conflict or when there is a conflict between rival gangs. At a mezzo level, a worker may also work with the families of gang members to assist them in being constructive forces in curbing their children’s delinquent behavior.
Spergel (1995) presents documentation that gangs develop primarily in local communities that are socially disorganized and/or impoverished. Gang members typically come from communities in which parents lack effective parenting skills, school sys-tems give little attention to students who are falling behind in their studies, youths are exposed to adult crime groups, and youths feel there is practically no opportunity to succeed through the legitimate av-enues of education and a good job. Spergel (1995) asserts that youths join gangs for many reasons—security, power, money, status, excitement, and new experiences—particularly under conditions of social deprivation or community instability. In essence, he presents a community disorganization approach to understanding the attraction of joining a gang.
In a very real sense, a delinquent gang is created because the needs of youths are not being met by the family, neighborhood, or traditional community institutions (such as the schools, police, and recre-ational and religious institutions). A social worker can function as an analyst and evaluator of commu-nity conditions that are conducive to the formation of gangs. A worker can also function as an initiator and an advocate for social policy changes. Some use-ful changes suggested by Spergel (1995) are reduced access to handguns; improved educational resources;
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Social Development in Adolescence 39 3
access to recreation, job training, jobs, family coun-seling, and drug rehabilitation; and mobilization of community groups and organizations to restrain gang violence (such as neighborhood watch groups). Social policy changes are also needed at state and national levels to funnel more resources to urban centers. Funds are needed to improve the quality of life for city residents, including youths, so that the needs of youths are met in ways other than through gang involvement. Social workers have an obliga-tion to advocate for such local, state, and national changes in social policy.
Regulus (1995) asserts that community mobiliza-tion appears to be the most effective strategy to re-duce gang problems.
Community mobilization is a strategy that attempts to integrate and coordinate the collective resources of citizens and organizations in gang control. In the broadest sense, community mobilization attempts to harness the combined efforts of governmental agencies, schools, police and criminal justice agencies, youth agencies, indigenous grass-roots organizations, churches, and so on within a community. (p. 1052)
LO 4 Understand Material on Social Work with Groups, Including Theories About Group Development and Theories About Group LeadershipEmpowerment Through Social Work with GroupsToday it is not uncommon to find social workers as both group leaders and participants in a myriad of settings, helping solve or ameliorate human or social problems and planning for and creating change. We have established that empowerment is the “process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to im-prove their life situations” (Gutierrez, 1990, p. 149). Groups can provide forceful and effective means to accomplish these ends. Johnson and Johnson (1997) define a group as “two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction, each aware of his or her
membership in the group, each aware of the others who belong to the group, and each aware of their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals” (p. 12).
From this description, we can see that the mem-bers of a group relate to one another within a con-text of sensing that they form a distinct entity, that they share a common goal or purpose, and that they have confidence that together they can accomplish as much as or more than would be possible work-ing separately. This commonality is characteristic of a wide variety of groups dealing with a multitude of societal problems. The beginning social worker is likely to be surprised at the diversity of groups in existence and excited by the challenge of practicing social work in groups. This section gives an introduc-tion to social work with groups—including types of groups, theories about group development, and the-ories about group leadership.
Types of GroupsThe following types of groups are frequently en-countered in social work practice: recreation, recre-ation-skill, educational, task, problem-solving and decision-making, focus, self-help, socialization, ther-apy, and encounter groups. This list is not an exhaus-tive one.
Recreation GroupsThe objective of recreation groups is to provide activities for enjoyment and exercise. Often such activities are spontaneous and the groups are prac-tically leaderless. The group service agency (such as the YMCA or neighborhood center) may offer little more than physical space and the use of some equipment. Spontaneous playground activities, in-formal athletic games, and an open game room are examples. Some group agencies providing such physical space claim that recreation and interaction with others help build character and prevent delin-quency among youth by providing an alternative to the street.
Recreation-Skill GroupsThe objective of a recreation-skill group is to im-prove a set of skills while providing enjoyment. In contrast to recreational groups, this group has an adviser, coach, or instructor; also, there is more of a task orientation. Examples of activities include golf, basketball, needlework, arts and crafts, and
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394 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
swimming. Competitive team sports and leagues may emerge. Frequently such groups are led by profes-sionals with recreational training rather than social work training. Social service agencies providing such services include the YMCA, YWCA, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, neighborhood centers, and school recre-ation departments.
Educational GroupsThe focus of educational groups is to help members acquire knowledge and learn more complex skills. The leader generally is a professional person with considerable training and expertise in the subject area. Examples of topics include child-rearing prac-tices, assertiveness training, techniques for becoming a more effective parent, preparing to be an adoptive parent, and training volunteers to perform a special-ized task for a social service agency. Educational group leaders often function in a more didactic man-ner and frequently are social workers. These groups may resemble a class, with considerable group inter-action and discussion being encouraged.
Task GroupsTask groups are formed to achieve a specific set of tasks or objectives. The following are examples of task groups that social workers are apt to interact with or become involved in. A board of directors is an administrative group charged with responsibility for setting the policy governing agency programs. A task force is a group established for a special purpose and is usually disbanded after the task is completed. A committee of an agency or organization is a group that is formed to deal with specific tasks or matters. An ad hoc committee, like a task force, is set up for one purpose and usually ceases functioning after completion of its task.
Problem-Solving and Decision-Making GroupsBoth providers and consumers of social services may become involved in groups concerned with problem solving and decision making. There is considerable overlap between task groups and these groups; in fact, problem-solving and decision-making groups can be considered a subcategory of task groups.
Providers of services use group meetings for ob-jectives such as developing a treatment plan for a client or a group of clients, deciding how to best al-locate scarce resources, deciding how to improve the delivery of services to clients, arriving at policy deci-sions for the agency, and deciding how to improve coordination efforts with other agencies.
Potential consumers of services may form a group to study an unmet need in the community and to ad-vocate for the development of new programs to meet the need. Data on the need may be gathered, and the group may be used as a vehicle either to develop a program or to influence existing agencies to provide services. Social workers may function as stimula-tors and organizers of such group efforts as well as participants.
In problem-solving and decision-making groups, each participant normally has some interest or stake in the process and may gain or lose, depending on the outcome. Usually, there is a formal leader, al-though other leaders sometimes emerge during the process.
Focus GroupsClosely related to task groups and problem-solving and decision-making groups are focus groups. Focus groups are formed for a variety of purposes: to iden-tify needs or issues, to generate proposals to resolve an identified issue, to test reactions to alternative approaches to an issue, and so forth. A focus group is a specially assembled collection of people who respond through a semistructured or structured dis-cussion to the concerns and interests of the person, group, or organization that invited the participants. Members of the group are invited and encouraged to bring up their own ideas and views.
A representative group is a version of the focus group. Its strength is that its members have been se-lected specifically to represent different perspectives and points of view in a community. At its best, a representative group is a focus group that reflects the diversity in the community and seeks to bring these diverse views to the table. At its worst, it is a front group manipulated by schemers to make the com-munity think that it has been involved.
Self-Help GroupsSelf-help groups are becoming increasingly popular in our society and are often successful in helping in-dividuals with certain social or personal problems. Katz and Bender (1976) provide a comprehensive definition of self-help groups:
Self-help groups are voluntary, small group structures for mutual aid and the accomplishment of a special purpose. They are usually formed by peers who have come together for mutual assistance in satisfying a common need, overcoming a common handicap or life-disrupting problem, and bringing
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Social Development in Adolescence 395
about desired social and/or personal change. The initiators and members of such groups perceive that their needs are not, or cannot be, met by or through existing social institutions. Self-help groups emphasize face-to-face social interactions and the assumption of personal responsibility by members. They often provide material assistance as well as emotional support; they are frequently cause-oriented, and promulgate an ideology or values through which members may attain an enhanced sense of personal identity. (p. 9)
Powell’s (1987) classification of self-help groups conveys the variety and focuses of these groups:
1. Habit disturbance organizations. These organi-zations focus on a problem that is specific and concrete. Examples include Alcoholics Anony-mous, Smoke Stoppers, Overeaters Anonymous, Gamblers Anonymous, Take Off Pounds Sensibly (TOPS), Women for Sobriety, Narcotics Anony-mous, and Weight Watchers.
2. General-purpose organizations. These organi-zations address a wide range of problems and predicaments. Examples are Parents Anony-mous (for parents of abused children); Emotions Anonymous (for persons with emotional prob-lems); the Compassionate Friends (for persons who have experienced a loss through death); and GROW, an organization that works to prevent the hospitalization of mental patients through a comprehensive program of mutual aid.
3. Lifestyle organizations. These organizations seek to provide support for, and advocate for, the lifestyles of people whose members are viewed by society as being different (and the domi-nant groups in society are generally indifferent or hostile to that difference). Examples include Widow-to-Widow Programs, Parents Without Partners, ALMA (Adoptees’ Liberty Movement Association), PFLAG (Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays), the National Gay and Les-bian Task Force, and the Gray Panthers (an inter-generational group that advocates for the elderly).
4. Physical handicap organizations. These organiza-tions focus on major chronic diseases and condi-tions. Some are for people with conditions that are relatively stable, some for conditions that are likely to get worse, and some for terminal ill-nesses. Examples of this category include Make Today Count (for the terminally ill and their
families), Emphysema Anonymous, Lost Chord clubs (for those who have had laryngectomies), stroke clubs, Mended Hearts, the Spina Bifida Association, and Self-Help for Hard of Hearing People.
5. Significant-other organizations. The members of these organizations are parents, spouses, and close relatives of troubled and troubling persons. Very often, members of significant-other groups are last-resort caregivers contending with dysfunc-tional behavior. Through sharing their feelings, they obtain a measure of relief. In the course of sharing, they may also learn about new resources or new approaches. Examples of such organiza-tions include Al-Anon, Gam-Anon, Toughlove, and the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill.
The American Self-Help Group Clearinghouse is a web-based database of more than 1,100 national and international self-help support groups for health, mental health, addictions, abuse, disabilities, parent-ing, caregiver concerns, and other stressful life situa-tions. It is compiled and edited by Barbara J. White and Edward J. Madara, with the web version up-dated by Anita M. Broderick and Paul Riddleberger, Ph.D. Any self-help group contained in the database can be accessed by typing a keyword on the website. The website can be easily accessed by going to the internet and typing in “American Self-Help Group Clearinghouse.”
Many self-help groups stress (1) a confession by members to the group that they have a problem, (2) a testimony by their members to the group re-counting then past experiences with the problem and their plans for handling the problem in the future, and (3) support. That is, when a member feels an intense urge of a recurrence (such as to drink or to abuse a child), he or she calls a member of the group, and that member comes over to stay with the person until the urge subsides.
Such self-help groups are successful for several reasons. The members have an internal understand-ing of the problem, which helps them help others. Having experienced the consequences of the prob-lem, they are highly motivated to find ways to help themselves and their fellow sufferers. The partici-pants also benefit from the helper therapy principle: the helper gains psychological rewards by helping others (Riessman, 1965). Helping others makes a person feel good and worthwhile; it also enables the
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396 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
helpers to put their own problems into perspective as they see that others’ problems may be as serious as or even more serious than their own.
When people help each other in self-help groups, they tend to feel empowered and in control of im-portant aspects of their lives. When help is received from the outside (from an expert or a professional), there is a danger of dependency, which is the oppo-site of empowerment. Empowerment increases motivation, energy, personal growth, and an ability to help that goes beyond helping oneself or receiving help.
Some self-help groups advocate for the rights and lifestyles of people whose members are viewed by society as being different. One such group is the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Some self-help groups (such as The Arc of the United States) raise funds and operate community programs. Many people with a personal problem use self-help groups in the same way others use social agencies. An ad-ditional advantage is that self-help groups generally are able to operate with a minimal budget. Hundreds of these groups are now in existence. Social workers often act as brokers in linking clients to appropriate self-help groups.
Socialization GroupsThe objective of socialization groups generally is to develop or change attitudes and behaviors of group members to become more socially acceptable. Social-skill development, increasing self-confidence, and planning for the future are other goals. Illustra-tions include working with predelinquent youth in group activities to prevent delinquency, with a youth group of diverse racial backgrounds to reduce racial tensions, with pregnant young females at a maternity home to make plans for the future, with elderly resi-dents at a nursing home to remotivate them and get them involved in various activities, and with boys at a correctional school to help them make plans for returning to their home community. Leadership of such groups requires considerable skill and knowl-edge in using the group to foster individual growth and change. These leadership roles are frequently filled by social workers. (The RAP framework, which can be used for leading multiracial groups, is presented in Spotlight 8.1.)
Therapy GroupsTherapy groups are generally composed of members with rather severe emotional or personal problems.
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Social Development in Adolescence 39 7
the Rap Framework for leading multiracial GroupsWhenever people of different races interact in a group, the leader should assume that race is an issue, but not necessarily a problem. Race is an issue in a multiracial group because it is a very apparent difference among participants and one that is laden with considerable social meaning. The leader of a multiracial group should not attempt to be color-blind, because being color-blind leads to ignoring important dynamics related to race.
In leading a multiracial group, Davis, Galinsky, and Schopler (1995) urge that the leader use the RAP framework. RAP stands for recognize, anticipate, and problem-solve. Each element will be briefly described in the sections that follow.
RecognizeRecognizing crucial ethnic, cultural, and racial differences in any group requires the leader to be both self-aware and aware of the racial dynamics of the group. A leader of a multiracial group needs to
● Be aware of personal values and stereotypes. ● Recognize racial, ethnic, and cultural differences among
the members. ● Respect the norms, customs, and cultures of the popula-
tions represented in the group. ● Become familiar with resources (community leaders, pro-
fessionals, agencies) in the community that are respon-sive to the needs of the racial components of the group. These resources can be used as consultants by the leader when racial issues arise and may also be used as referral resources for special needs of particular members.
● Be aware of various forms of institutional discrimination in the community and of their impact on various popula-tion groups.
● Be aware of racial tensions in the community that may concern members of the group. Such tensions may directly impact interactions among members of different races in the group.
AnticipateAnticipating how individual members will be affected by racial issues prepares the leader to respond preventively and interventively when racial issues arise. The leader should anticipate potential sources of racial tension in the group when the members formulate their group goals, and when the leader structures the group’s work. Because relationships between members and race-laden outside issues (i.e., outside the group) change over time, anticipating racial tensions is an ongoing leadership responsibility. To anticipate tensions and help members deal effectively with them, the leader should
● Seek to include more than one member of any given race. If the group has a solo member, the leader should ac-knowledge the difficulty of this situation for that member and should make it clear that that member is not expected to serve as the representative of his or her race.
● Develop a leadership style that is culturally appropriate to the group’s specific racial configuration. This requires that the leader become knowledgeable about the beliefs, values, and cultures of the various racial components of the group.
● Treat all members with respect and equality in both verbal and nonverbal communications.
● Help the group formulate goals responsive to the concerns and needs expressed by all the members.
● Seek to empower members to obtain their rights, particu-larly if they are being victimized by institutional discrimi-nation or other forms of racism in the community.
● Acknowledge in initial contacts with members and in ini-tial sessions that racial and ethnic differences do exist in the group and that any issues that arise in the group re-garding race must be openly discussed—even if discussing such issues and differences is uncomfortable.
● Encourage the development of norms of mutual respect and appreciation of diversity.
● Announce in initial sessions that at times people do and say things that are racially inappropriate. When this oc-curs, these comments and actions will be thoroughly dis-cussed in order to resolve the issues and to work toward an appreciation of differences.
Problem-SolveWhen incidents related to racial issues do arise, the leader must intervene to resolve the issues. The leader should
● Use a problem-solving approach. Briefly, this approach involves identifying the issues and needs of each party, generating alternatives to meet those needs, evaluating the merits of each of these alternatives, and selecting and implementing the most promising alternative.
● Use conflict resolution approaches (described in Chap ter 12). These approaches include role reversal, empathy, inquiry, I-messages, disarming, stroking, and mediation.
● Use interventions and goals that are culturally acceptable and appropriate for all members of the group.
● Provide some rules when involving members in problem solv-ing and conflict resolution (for example, no name calling).
● Assist members in being assertive in confronting and deal-ing with problems related to race.
● Be prepared to advocate outside the group on a member’s behalf when that member is being victimized by discrimi-nation and oppression in the community.
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 8.1
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39 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Similar to one-to-one counseling, the goal of therapy groups is to have members explore their problems in depth and then to develop one or more strategies for resolving them.
Leadership of therapy groups requires consid-erable skill, perceptiveness, knowledge of human behavior and group dynamics, group counseling ca-pacities, and ability to use the group to bring about behavioral changes. Among other skills, the group leader needs to be highly perceptive about how each member is being affected by what is being communi-cated. Considerable competence is needed to develop and maintain a constructive atmosphere within the group. The group therapist generally uses one or more therapy approaches as a guide for changing attitudes and behaviors; these approaches include psychoanalysis, reality therapy, learning theory, ra-tional therapy, transactional analysis, client-centered therapy, and psychodrama.
Group therapy is being used increasingly in social work. It has several advantages over one-to-one ther-apy. The helper therapy principle (in which members interchange roles and sometimes become the helper for someone else’s problems) is generally operative. In such roles, members receive psychological re-wards for helping others. Groups also help members put their problems into perspective as they realize others have equally serious problems. Groups also help members who are having interaction problems test out new interaction approaches. Research has shown that it is generally easier to change the at-titudes of an individual in a group than in one-to-one counseling, and that group pressure can have a substantial effect on changing attitudes and beliefs (Johnson & Johnson, 1997). Furthermore, group therapy permits the social worker to help more than one person at a time, with potential savings in the use of professional effort. (See Highlight 8.10, “Case Example: Therapy Group for Spouses of Adults with Cancer.”)
Encounter GroupsEncounter groups and sensitivity-training groups (these terms are used more or less synonymously) re-fer to a group experience in which people relate to each other in a close interpersonal manner and self-disclosure is required. The goal is to improve inter-personal awareness.
An encounter group may meet for a few hours or for as long as a few days. Once increased interpersonal
awareness is achieved, it is anticipated that attitudes and behaviors will change.
In the encounter group, the leader usually does not act like a leader. He or she frequently starts with a brief statement encouraging the group members to participate, to be open and honest, and to expect things to be different. Group members may begin by taking off their shoes, sitting in a circle on the floor, and holding hands with their eyes closed. The leader then encourages them to feel intensely the sensations they are experiencing, the size and texture of the hands they are holding, and so forth.
Other structured exercises or experiences may be planned to help the group focus on the here and now. For example, pairs may go for “trust walks” in which each person alternatively is led around with his eyes closed.
The goal of sensitivity groups provides an in-teresting contrast to that of most therapy groups. In therapy, the goal is to have all members explore personal or emotional problems and then develop a strategy to resolve the problems. In comparison, sen-sitivity groups seek to foster increased personal and interpersonal awareness and then develop more ef-fective interaction patterns. Sensitivity groups gener-ally do not attempt to identify and change specific emotional or personal problems (such as drinking problems, feelings of depression, or sexual dysfunc-tion). The philosophy behind sensitivity groups is that with increased personal and interpersonal awareness, people will be better able to cope with specific personal problems that arise.
In our society, sensitivity groups are used for a va-riety of purposes: to train professional counselors to be more perceptive and effective in interpersonal in-teractions with clients and with other professionals; to train people in management positions to be more effective in their business interactions; to help clients with overt relationship problems become more aware of how they affect others and to help them develop more effective interaction patterns; and to train in-terested citizens in becoming more aware and effec-tive in their interactions.
Models of Group Development over TimeGroups change over time. Numerous models or frameworks have been developed to describe the changes that occur in groups over time. Here we will describe the following models of group development:
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Social Development in Adolescence 39 9
HIGHLIGHT 8.10
case example: therapy Group for Spouses of adults with cancerEleven years ago, Linda Sonsthagen’s husband was diagnosed with cancer. Linda was a social worker, and her husband was a successful life insurance agent. They had two sons in grade school. Mr. Sonsthagen died 4½ years ago, after having gone through a variety of treatment programs and through considerable pain. He lost weight and his hair fell out. These years were extremely difficult for the Sonsthagens. Linda had to take a larger role in raising the children and was the primary caregiver to both her husband and the children. During these years, the Sonsthagens found that relatives and friends shied away from them—it took several months before they became aware that the reason was that friends and relatives saw cancer as something they didn’t understand and wanted to avoid. Even more difficult was dealing emotionally with not knowing the course of the disorder, going through cycles of hope and then disappointment as different treatment approaches were tried. As her husband became more incapacitated, Linda found she had to assume more of his tasks—for example, home repairs, maintaining their two cars, disciplining the children, and other daily household tasks.
After her husband’s deaths Linda and the two children went through several months of mourning and grief. Linda also, discovered it was somewhat awkward to go to social functions alone. Fortunately, she had two single female friends with whom she increasingly socialized. These were very difficult years for Linda. She needed more than two years after her husband’s death to rebuild her life in such a way that she was again comfortable.
During these years, she received some financial help from the local chapter of the American Cancer Society. Through this society, she also met another woman whose husband was dying of cancer. They gave each other emotional support and shared useful ideas of handling problems.
Eighteen months ago, Linda proposed to the local chapter of the American Cancer Society that she was willing to volunteer her time to start a group for spouses of people with cancer, and for spouses adjusting to a recent cancer death. The Cancer Society gave its approval and endorsement.
Linda started with nine members. The objectives were to give emotional support, to help members handle the new responsibilities they had to take on, and to help them deal with their emotional reactions. Linda used primarily a combination of choice theory and rational therapy (choice theory is described in Chapter 11 and rational therapy is summarized earlier in this chapter). Reality therapy helped the group members better understand and make decisions and plans for the problems they faced. For example, for the members whose spouses had cancer, one focus was how to inform and handle their friends’ and relatives’ reactions to illness. Survivors focused on rebuilding their lives. Rational therapy countered unwanted emotions. Common emotions included depression, guilt, anxiety, the feeling of being overwhelmed, and anger (particularly resulting from “Why does this have to happen to me?”). Members were instructed on how to do a Rational Self-Analysis (described earlier in this chapter) on their unwanted emotions, and members often shared and discussed their RSAs at group meetings.
Group members stated on several occasions that the group was very helpful. They mentioned that knowing others faced similar plights was beneficial in and of itself. Seeing how others handled difficult decisions inspired them and gave them useful ideas on how to handle crises they faced. When a member suffered a serious crisis (e.g., a spouse hospitalized for a serious operation), other members were available for telephone contact and to lend physical assistance.
After eight months, the local chapter of the American Cancer Society was so encouraged by the results that it offered Linda a full-time position to run additional groups and to be available for individual counseling for people with cancer and their relatives. Linda gave up her part-time job as a counselor at the YWCA and took this position. Her first effort was to divide her group, which was growing, into two groups. The definition of eligible membership was also expanded: One group was for adults who have a family member with cancer, and the other for survivors. At this time, Linda is leading one group of the first type and two groups of the second type.
(1) the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model; (2) the Tuckman model; (3) the Schiller model; and (4) the Bales model.
Garland, Jones, and Kolodny ModelGarland, Jones, and Kolodny (1965) developed a model that identifies five stages of development in social work groups. This model seeks to describe the
kinds of problems that commonly arise as groups begin to form and continue to develop. Under-standing these problems, it is theorized, enables the designated leader to anticipate and respond more effectively to the reactions of group members. The conceptualization of Garland and his colleagues (1965) appears particularly applicable to socializa-tion groups, therapy groups, and encounter groups.
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4 0 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
To a lesser extent, the model is also applicable to self-help groups, problem-solving and decision-making groups, educational groups, recreation-skill groups, and task groups.
Closeness (i.e., the question of how near group members will allow themselves to become to one an-other emotionally) is the central focus of the model. The question of closeness is reflected in struggles that occur at five levels of growth of the group: pre-affiliation, power and control, intimacy, differentia-tion, and separation.
In the first stage, preaffiliation, members are ambivalent about joining the group. Interaction is guarded. Members test out, often through approach and avoidance behavior, whether they really want to belong to the group. New situations are often frightening, and the members try to protect them-selves from being hurt or taken advantage of in such new situations. They attempt to maintain a certain amount of distance and get what they can from the group without risking much of themselves. Individu-als are aware that group involvement will make de-mands that may be frustrating or even painful. At the same time, members are attracted to the group because they generally have had satisfying experi-ences in other groups, and this group offers the hope of similar rewards. In the first stage, the leader should seek to increase the attractions toward the group “by allowing and supporting distance, gently inviting trust, facilitating exploration of the physical and psychological milieu, and by providing activities if necessary and initiating group structure” (Garland & Frey, 1973, p. 3). The first stage gradually ends when members come to feel fairly safe and comfort-able with the group and view the rewards as being worth a tentative emotional commitment.
The second stage, power and control, emerges as the characteristics of the group begin to de-velop. Patterns of communication within the group emerge, alliances and subgroups begin to appear, members begin to take on certain roles and respon-sibilities, norms and methods for handling group tasks develop, and membership questions arise. Such processes are necessary for the group to con-duct its business. However, these processes lead to a struggle as the members establish their places within the group. Each member seeks power, partly for self-protection and partly to attempt to gain greater con-trol over the rewards to be received from the group. In this struggle, the group leader is a major source
of gratification. The leader is perceived as having the greatest power to influence the direction of the group and to give or withhold emotional and mate-rial rewards. At this point, members realize that the group is becoming important to them.
The second stage is a transitional stage, with cer-tain basic issues needing to be resolved: Does the group or the leader have primary control over the group’s affairs? What are the limits of the power of the leader and of the group? To what extent will the leader use his or her power?
This uncertainty results in anxiety among group members and considerable testing by them to gauge the limits and establish norms for the power of both the group and the group leader. Rebellion is not un-common; the dropout rate in groups is often highest at this stage. During this struggle, the leader should (1) seek to help the members understand the nature of the power struggle, (2) give emotional support to weather the discomfort of uncertainty, and (3) help the group establish norms to resolve the uncertainty. It is important that group members develop trust in the leader so he or she will maintain a safe bal-ance of shared power and control. When this trust is achieved, group members make a major commit-ment to become involved in the group.
In the third stage, intimacy, the likes and dislikes of intimate relationships are expressed. The group becomes more like a family, with sibling rivalry aris-ing between members and the leader sometimes even being referred to as a parent. Feelings about the group at this stage are more openly expressed and discussed. The group is now viewed as a place where growth and change take place. Individuals feel free to examine and make efforts to change personal atti-tudes, concerns, and problems. Group tasks are also worked on, and there is a feeling of “oneness” or cohesiveness within the group. Struggle or turmoil during this stage leads the members to explore and make changes in their personal lives and to examine “what this group is all about.”
During the fourth stage, differentiation, there is increased freedom for members to experiment with new and alternative behavior patterns. There is a rec-ognition of individual rights and needs and a high level of communication among members. At this stage, the group is able to organize itself more effi-ciently. Leadership is more evenly shared, and roles are more functional. Power problems are now min-imal, and decisions are made and carried out on a
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Social Development in Adolescence 4 01
less emotional and more objective basis. As Garland and Frey (1973) note,
This kind of individualized therapeutic cohesion has been achieved because the group experience has all along valued and nurtured individual integrity . . .
The worker assists in this stage by helping the group to run itself and by encouraging it to act as a unit with other groups or in the wider community. During this time the worker exploits opportunities for evaluation by the group of its activities, feelings, and behavior. (p. 5)
The differentiation stage is analogous to a healthy functioning family in which the children have reached adulthood and are now becoming successful in pursuing their own lives; relationships are more between equals, members are mutually supportive, and members are able to relate to each other in ways that are more rational and objective.
The final stage is separation. The purposes of the group have been achieved, and members have learned new behavioral patterns to enable them to move on to other social experiences. Termination is not always easily accomplished. Members may be reluctant to move on and may even display regres-sive behavior in an effort to prolong the safety of the group. Members may also express anger over ending the group or even psychologically deny the end is near. Garland and Frey (1973) suggested the leader’s role should be the following:
To facilitate separation the worker must be willing to let go. Concentration upon group and individual mobility, evaluation of the experience, help with the expression of the ambivalence about termination, and recognition of the progress which has been made are his major tasks. Acceptance of termination is facilitated by active guidance of members as individuals to other ongoing sources of support and assistance. (p. 6)
Tuckman ModelTuckman (1965) reviewed more than 50 studies of mostly therapy and sensitivity groups, of a lim-ited duration, and concluded that these groups go through five predictable developmental stages: form-ing, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.
1. Forming. In this stage, members become oriented toward each other, work on being accepted, and learn more about the group. During this stage, there is a period of uncertainty in which members
try to determine their place in the group and the rules and procedures of the group.
2. Storming. In this stage, conflicts begin to arise as members resist the influence of the group and rebel against accomplishing the task. During this stage, members often confront their various differences, and the management of conflict be-comes the focus of attention.
3. Norming. In this stage, the group establishes co-hesiveness and commitment, and in the process discovers new ways to work together. Norms are also set for appropriate behavior.
4. Performing. In this stage, the group works as a unit to achieve its goals. The group develops pro-ficiency in achieving its goals and becomes more flexible in its patterns of working together.
5. Adjourning. In this stage, the group disbands. The feelings that members experience are similar to those in the separation stage of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model.
Schiller ModelSchiller (1995) has advanced a relational model of group development that is most applicable to wom-en’s groups. The model has the following five stages:
1. Preaffiliation. In women’s groups, the same dy-namics occur as in the preaffiliation stage of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model.
2. Establishing a relational base. In contrast to most models of group development that focus on power and control, in this second stage, women in groups focus on establishing common ground and a sense of connection with each other and with the facilitator. Members find similarities in their experiences and seek approval from the fa-cilitator and from other group members.
3. Mutuality and interpersonal empathy. During this stage, members move beyond making connec-tions and recognize their similarities. They have in-creased trust in one another and feel free to disclose their thoughts and feelings. Members also respect differences and display empathy for one another.
4. Challenge and change. Members challenge them-selves and each other during this stage, which facilitates growth and change among members. During this stage, members have a sense of com-munity with one another, which facilitates chal-lenging one another, taking risks, and expressing disagreements without fearing the loss of valued connections made with one another.
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4 0 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
5. Separation. In women’s groups, the members ex-perience the same dynamics in this final stage as suggested in the separation stage of the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model.
Bales ModelBoth the Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model and the Tuckman model are sequential-stage models; both models specify sequential stages of group de-velopment. In contrast, Bales (1965) developed a recurring-phase model. Bales asserted that groups continue to seek an equilibrium between task-oriented work and emotional expressions to build better relationships among group members. (Task roles and social/emotional roles perfor med by members in a group are discussed in the next sec-tion.) Bales asserts that a group tends to oscillate between these two concerns. Sometimes it focuses on identifying and performing the work tasks that must be conducted in order for the group to achieve its goals. At other times, the group focuses on building morale and improving its social-emotional atmosphere.
Note that the sequential-stage perspective and the recurring-phase perspective are not necessarily con-tradictory. Both are useful for understanding group development. The sequential-stage perspective as-sumes that a group is apt to move through various phases while dealing with basic themes that surface as they become relevant to the group’s work. The recurring-phase perspective assumes that the issues underlying the basic themes are never completely re-solved but tend to recur later.
Task and Maintenance RolesAll groups, whether organized for therapeutic rea-sons, for problem solving, or for other objectives, rely on the performance of a variety of roles by their members. The group’s needs generally require that both task roles and group-building roles be performed satisfactorily. Task roles are those that are needed to accomplish the specific goals set by the group; maintenance roles are those that serve to strengthen the social/emotional aspects of group life.
Johnson and Johnson (1975) summarized task roles as follows:
● Information and opinion giver: Offers facts, opin-ions, ideas, suggestions, and relevant information to help group discussion.
● Information and opinion seeker: Asks for facts, information, opinions, ideas, and feelings from other members to help group discussion.
● Starter: Proposes goals and tasks to initiate action within the group.
● Direction giver: Develops plans on how to proceed and focuses attention on the task to be done.
● Summarizes. Pulls together related ideas or sug-gestions and restates and summarizes major points discussed.
● Coordinator: Shows relationships among various ideas and harmonizes activities of various sub-groups and members.
● Diagnoser: Figures out sources of difficulties the group has in working effectively and the blocks to progress in accomplishing the group’s goals.
● Energizer: Stimulates a higher quality of work from the group.
● Reality tester: Examines the practicality of ideas, evaluates alternative solutions, and applies them to real situations to see how they will work.
● E va l u a t o r: C o m p a re s g ro u p d e c i s i o n s a n d accomplishments with group standards and goals.
Johnson and Johnson (1975) also identified the group maintenance roles, which strengthen social/emotional bonds within the group:
● Encourager of participation: Warmly encour-ages everyone to participate, giving recognition for contributions and demonstrating openness to ideas of others; is friendly and responsive to group members.
● Harmonizer and compromiser: Persuades members to analyze constructively their differences in opin-ions, searches for common elements in conflicts, and tries to reconcile disagreements.
● Tension reliever: Eases tensions and increases the enjoyment of group members by joking, sug-gesting breaks, and proposing fun approaches to group work.
● Communication helper: Shows good communica-tion skills and makes sure that each group mem-ber understands what other members are saying.
● Evaluator of emotional climate: Asks members how they feel about the way in which the group is working and about each other, and shares own feelings about both.
● Process observer: Watches the process by which the group is working and uses the observations to help examine group effectiveness.
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Social Development in Adolescence 4 0 3
● Standard setter: Expresses group standards and goals to make members aware of the direction of the work and the progress being made toward the goal and to get open acceptance of group norms and procedures.
● Active listener: Listens and serves as an interested audience for other members, is receptive to oth-ers’ ideas, goes along with the group when not in disagreement.
● Trust builder: Accepts and supports the openness of other group members; reinforces risk taking and encourages individuality.
● Interpersonal problem solver: Promotes open discussion of conflicts between group members in order to resolve conflicts and increase group togetherness.
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) developed a situ-ational theory of leadership that serves as a guide-line for when effective leaders should focus on task behaviors, when they should focus on maintenance behaviors, and when they should focus on both. In essence, the theory asserts that when members have low maturity in terms of accomplishing a specific task, the leader should engage in high-task and low-maintenance behaviors. Hersey and Blanchard re-fer to this situation as telling, because the leader’s behavior is most effective when he or she defines the members’ roles and tells them how, when, and where to do needed tasks. The task maturity of members increases as their experience and understanding of the task increases. For moderately mature mem-bers, the leader should engage in high-task and high-maintenance behaviors. This combination of behaviors is referred to as selling, because the leader should not only provide clear direction as to role and task responsibilities, but should also use main-tenance behaviors to get the members to psychologi-cally buy into the decisions that have to be made.
Also, according to Hersey and Blanchard, when group members’ commitment to the task increases, so does their maturity. When members are com-mitted to accomplishing the task and have the abil-ity and knowledge to complete the task, the leader should engage in low-task and high-maintenance behaviors, referred to as participating. Finally, for groups in which members are both willing and able to take responsibility for directing their own task behavior, the leader should engage in low-task and low-maintenance behaviors, referred to as delegating.
Delegating allows members considerable autonomy in completing the task.
Leadership TheoriesThere are at least five major approaches to leader-ship theory: trait, position, style, distributed func-tions, and servant leadership.
The Trait ApproachAristotle observed, “From the hour of their birth some are marked for subjugation, and others for command” (quoted in Johnson & Johnson, 1987, p. 39). As implied by this comment, this approach to leadership has been in existence for centuries. The trait approach assumes that leaders have personal characteristics or traits that make them different from followers. It also implies that leaders are born, not made, and that leaders emerge naturally rather than being trained. The trait approach has also been called the great person theory of leadership.
Two postulated leadership traits that have re-ceived considerable attention are charisma and Machiavellianism.
Charisma Johnson and Johnson (1987, p. 43) de-fine charisma as “an extraordinary power, as of working miracles.” They give the following defini-tion of a charismatic leader:
The charismatic leader must have a sense of mission, a belief in the social-change movement he or she leads, and confidence in oneself as the chosen instrument to lead the movement to its destination. The leader must appear extremely self-confident in order to inspire others with the faith that the movement he or she leads will, without fail, prevail and ultimately reduce their distress. (p. 44)
Some charismatic leaders appear to inspire their followers to adore and be fully committed to them. Other charismatic leaders offer their members the hope and promise of deliverance from distress.
Charisma has not been precisely defined, and its components have not been fully identified. The quali-ties and characteristics that any charismatic leader has will differ somewhat from those of other charismatic leaders. The following leaders have all been referred to as charismatic, yet they differed substantially in personality characteristics: John F. Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., Julius Caesar, General George Patton, Confucius, Gandhi, and Winston Churchill.
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4 0 4 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
One difficulty with the charisma approach to lead-ership is that people who are viewed as charismatic tend to express tins quality in a variety of ways. A second difficulty is that many leaders do well as lead-ers without being viewed as having charisma. For example, many group therapists are very effective in leading groups, even though they are not viewed as charismatic.
Machiavellianism Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) was an Italian statesman who advocated that rulers use cunning, craft, deceit, and duplicity as political methods for increasing their power and control. Machiavelli was not the originator of his approach; some earlier theorists had conceptual-ized leadership in terms of manipulation for self-enhancement. However, the term Machiavellianism has become associated with the notion that poli-tics is amoral and that any unscrupulous means can justifiably be used in achieving political power. Machiavellian leadership is based on the concepts that followers (1) are basically fallible, gullible, un-trustworthy, and weak; (2) are impersonal objects; and (3) should be manipulated in order for the leader to achieve his or her goals.
Christie and Geis (1970) concluded that Machia-vellian leaders have four characteristics:
1. They have little emotional involvement in inter-personal relationships, because it is emotionally easier to manipulate others when viewing them as impersonal objects.
2. They are not concerned about conventional mo-rality and take a utilitarian (what they can get out of it) rather than a moral view of their interac-tions with others.
3. They have a fairly accurate perception of the needs of their followers, which facilitates their ca-pacity to manipulate them.
4. They have a low degree of ideological commit-ment; they focus on manipulating others for per-sonal benefit rather than to achieve long-term ideological goals.
Although a few leaders may have Machiavellian characteristics, most do not. Few groups would function effectively or efficiently with Machiavellian leaders.
In recent years, the trait theory of leadership has declined in popularity, partly because research results have raised questions about its validity. For
example, different leadership positions often require different leadership traits. The characteristics of a good leader in the military differ markedly from those of a good group therapy leader. Moreover, traits found in leaders have also been found in fol-lowers. Though qualities such as high intelligence and a well-adjusted personality may have some cor-relation with leadership, many highly intelligent people never get top leadership positions, and some highly intelligent leaders (e.g., Adolf Hitler) have been emotionally unstable. The best rule for leader selection involves choosing individuals with the necessary skills, qualities, and motivation to help a group accomplish its goals.
The Position ApproachMost large organizations have several levels of leadership, such as president, vice-president, man-ager, and supervisor. The position approach defines leadership in terms of the authority of a particular position and has focused on studying the behavior of people in high-level positions. At times, the train-ing and personal background of leaders have also been examined.
Studies using the position approach, however, have revealed little consistency in how people assume leadership positions. Obviously, some individuals become leaders with little related training (in fam-ily businesses, for example), whereas others spend years developing their skills. Also, what is viewed as “desirable” leadership behavior in one position may be considered “undesirable” behavior in a different type of position. For example, a drill sergeant in basic military training is not expected to be empa-thetic, but a sensitivity group leader is. It is difficult to compile a list of leadership traits using this ap-proach. Not surprisingly, the position approach has shown that what constitutes leadership behavior de-pends on the particular requirements of the position.
It is also difficult to define which behaviors of a designated leader are leadership behaviors and which are not. Certainly not all of the behaviors of a designated authority figure are leadership behav-iors. For instance, an inexperienced individual in a position of authority can mask incompetence with an authoritarian attitude. Also, leadership behavior among group members who are not designated lead-ers is difficult to conceptualize with the position ap-proach, because the position approach focuses only on the behaviors of designated leaders.
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Social Development in Adolescence 4 0 5
The Style ApproachBecause research on the trait approach was turn-ing out contradictory results, Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939) took a leadership style approach. These researchers described and studied three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire.
Authoritarian leaders have more absolute power than democratic leaders. They alone set goals and policies, dictate the activities of the members, and set major plans. They hand out rewards and punish-ments, and they alone know the succession of future steps in the group’s activities. In contrast, democratic leaders seek maximum involvement and participa-tion of every member in all decisions affecting the group. They seek to spread responsibility rather than to concentrate it.
Authoritarian leadership is generally efficient and decisive. One of the hazards, however, is that group members may do what they are told out of necessity and not because of any commitment to group goals. The authoritarian leader who anticipates approval from subordinates for accomplishments achieved may be surprised to find backbiting and bickering common in the group. Unsuccessful authoritar-ian leadership is apt to generate factionalism and behind-the-scenes jockeying and maneuvering for position among members, and lead to a decline in morale.
Democratic leadership, in contrast, is slow in de-cision making and sometimes confusing, but fre-quently proves to be more effective because of strong cooperation that generally emerges with participa-tion in decision making. With democratic leader-ship, interpersonal hostilities between members, dissatisfactions with the leader, and concern for personal advancement all become issues that are dis-cussed and acted on. The danger is that the private, behind-the-scenes complaining of the authoritarian approach becomes public conflict in a democratic approach. Once this public conflict has been re-solved in a democratic group, however, a strong per-sonal commitment develops that motivates members to implement group decisions rather than to subvert them. The potential for sabotage in an authoritarian group is high, and therein lies the advantage of the democratic style.
The democratic leader knows that some mistakes are inevitable, and that the group will suffer from them. Yet such mistakes require the leader’s ability to stand by without interfering because to do otherwise
might harm the democratic process and impede the progress of the group in developing the capacity to make decisions as a group.
In some situations, authoritarian leadership is more effective, whereas in others democratic leader-ship is more effective (Hare, 1962). As in any situa-tion, the group will be more effective when members’ expectations about the behavior appropriate for that situation are met. When group members anticipate a democratic style, as they do in educational settings, classrooms, or discussion groups, the democratic style usually produces the most effective group. When members anticipate forceful leadership from their superiors, as in industry or military service, a more authoritarian form of leadership results in a more effective group.
In the laissez-faire style, there is little participa-tion by the leader. The group members are left to function (or flounder) with little input from the des-ignated leader. There are a few conditions in which group members function best under laissez-faire style: when the members are committed to a course of action, have the resources to implement it, and need a minimum of designated leader influence to work effectively.
Because different leadership styles are required in different situations (even with the same group), research interest in recent years has switched to the distributed functions approach.
The Distributed Functions ApproachWith this approach, leadership is defined as the per-formance of acts that help the group reach its goals and maintain itself in good working order (Johnson & Johnson, 1997). The functional approach to lead-ership seeks to discover what tasks are essential to achieve group goals under various circumstances and how different group members should take part in these actions.
The distributed functions approach disagrees with the great person theory of leadership. It asserts that any member of a group will at times be a leader by taking actions that serve group functions. With this approach, leadership is viewed as being specific to a particular group in a particular situation. For exam-ple, telling a joke may be a useful leadership function in certain situations if it relieves tension, but telling a joke when other members are revealing intense per-sonal feelings in a therapy group may be counterpro-ductive and therefore not a leadership function.
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4 0 6 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
The functional approach defines leadership as oc-curring whenever one member in a group influences other members to help the group reach its goals. Because at times all group members influence other group members, each member in a group exerts lead-ership. A difference exists in most groups between being a designated leader (such as a president or chairperson) and engaging in leadership behavior. A designated leader has certain responsibilities (such as calling meetings and leading the discussion), whereas leadership means that one member is influ-encing other group members to help the group reach its goals.
The functional approach asserts that leadership is a learned set of skills that anyone with certain mini-mal requirements can acquire. Responsible mem-bership is the same thing as responsible leadership; both involve doing what needs to be done to help the group maintain itself and accomplish its goals. This approach asserts that people can be taught the skills and behaviors that help the group accomplish its tasks.
Like any member of a group, the designated leader may be called on or may be forced to adopt one or more of the task or maintenance roles dis-cussed earlier in this chapter. Indeed, the leader has a special obligation to be alert for such occasions and to assume, or to assist others to assume, whichever roles are timely and appropriate. The leader’s contri-bution to the group is not limited, however, to the assumption of specified roles. Each leader is respon-sible for a variety of functions. The needs and de-velopmental stage of a group may at different times require a leader who can assume any of the previ-ously described roles as well as those that follow:
● Executive: being the top coordinator of the activi-ties of a group.
● Policymaker: establishing group goals and policies. ● Planner: deciding the means by which the group
will achieve its goals. ● Expert: serving as the source of readily available
information and skills. ● External group representative: being the official
spokesperson for the group. ● Controller of internal relations: controlling the
structure as a way to control in-group relations. ● Purveyor of rewards and punishments: determining
promotions, or demotions, and assigning pleasant or unpleasant tasks.
● Arbitrator and mediator: acting as both judge and conciliator with the power to reduce or to increase factionalism within the group.
● Exemplar: serving as a model of behavior to show what the members should be and do.
● Ideologist: serving as the source of the beliefs and values of the members.
● Scapegoat: serving as the target for ventilating, members’ frustrations and disappointments.
The Servant Leadership ApproachServant leadership is an approach to leadership that was initially developed by Robert K. Greenleaf (1982). A servant leader is someone who looks to the needs of the group she is working with, and asks herself how she can help the members solve prob-lems and promote personal development among the members. She places her main focus on the members, as she believes that content and motivated members are best able to reach their goals. In contrast to an autocratic style of leadership in which the autocratic leader makes most of the decisions, decision-making responsibilities are shared with the members in the servant leadership style. The highest priority of a servant leader is to support, encourage, and enable members to unfold their full potential and abilities. (A highly competent teacher probably uses many of the concepts of a servant leader.)
Larry C. Spears and Michele Lawrence (2004) have identified the following ten concepts that char-acterize a servant leader:
● Listening: A servant leader is motivated to listen to members and is supportive of their opinions, and validates their concerns. The servant leader not only attends to verbalized concerns, but also to what is “unspoken.”
● Empathy: A servant leader seeks to understand and empathize with the members. The members are viewed as people who need respect and ap-preciation in order to facilitate personal develop-ment; and the more that members develop, the more successful and productive they are apt to become.
● Healing: A servant leader seeks to help members solve their issues and conflicts in relationships, as she wants to encourage and support the personal development of each member. Such “healing” is postulated to lead to a working environment in
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Social Development in Adolescence 4 07
the group that is dynamic, fun, and free of the fear of failure.
● Awareness: A servant leader seeks to have a high level of self-awareness, and to be perceptive of what the members are thinking and feeling. She also seeks to be aware of their interpersonal rela-tionships in the group.
● Persuasion: A servant leader does not try to co-erce members into compliance with what she wants, but instead seeks to convince members to share decision-making responsibilities.
● Conceptualization: A servant leader thinks be-yond day-to-day realities. She also conceptualizes long-term goals and strategies for reaching those goals. She has a personal vision that incorporates what is in the best interests of all members of the group.
● Foresight: A servant leader has the capacity to foresee the likely outcome of possible implemen-tation strategies. (This characteristic is closely re-lated to conceptualization.)
● Stewardship: A servant leader not only seeks to facilitate the personal development and produc-tivity of the group, but also realizes she has an obligation to do what is best for the greater soci-ety. Openness and persuasion are more important than control.
● Commitment to the growth of people. A servant leader focuses on nurturing the professional, per-sonal, and spiritual growth of members. She seeks to validate the ideas of all the members, and in-volves them in decision making.
● Building Community: A servant leader not only seeks to develop a productive and contented group, but also seeks to build a strong community. It is postulated that members will have considerable growth with this style of leadership, which will lead these members to add to the development of the communities in which they live.
Servant leadership is a lifelong journey that in-cludes self-discovery, a desire to serve others, and a commitment to developing the group members that one works with. Servant leaders are humble, caring, visionary, empowering, relational, competent, good stewards, and community builders. They put others first, are skilled communicators, are compassionate collaborators, are systems thinkers, and are ethical. Instead of a top-down hierarchical style, servant leaders emphasize trust, collaboration, empathy, and ethical use of power. Servant leaders do not seek to
increase their own power, but seek to lead by better serving others.
Servant leadership not only facilitates the per-sonal development of group members, but has the potential to influence the broader society in a posi-tive way. Group members tend to be attracted to this style of leadership, and tend to be happier and more productive. (Servant leadership is not only an effec-tive approach to leading a group, but is also an ef-fective management style for a supervisor to use in supervising employees. Managers who empower and respect their staff tend to get better performance in return.)
Will servant leadership work well in all groups? Undoubtedly not! Certain settings probably require a more forceful form of leadership—such as in the military or in a prison setting.
Chapter SummaryThe following summarizes this chapter’s content as it relates to the learning objectives presented at the beginning of the chapter. Chapter content will help prepare students to
LO 1 Describe the social development changes that adolescents undergo.Young people during this time period face the social developmental tasks of moving from parental de-pendence to becoming more independent, establish-ing peer relationships, and perhaps forming intimate relationships with others.
LO 2 Describe some major problems encountered by this age group: eating disorders, emotional and behavior problems, crime and delinquency, and delinquent gangs.Eating disorders (anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorders) have been recognized as a serious problem. Anorexics eat very little food, bu-limics binge and purge, and overeaters binge.
Adolescents encounter a wide variety of emo-tional and behavioral problems. Two models for con-ceptualizing such problems are the medical model, which views emotional and behavioral problems as mental illnesses, and an interactional model, which holds that mental illness does not exist.
Adolescents (and young adults) commit the bulk of crimes. Juvenile courts have more of a treatment orientation than the adult criminal justice system.
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4 0 8 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
Delinquent gang activity has become a major so-cial problem in the United States, but the scientific knowledge base about delinquent gangs is limited.
LO 3 Understand theoretical material on the causes and treatments of these problems.Because eating disorders are complex and serious, professional intervention is generally needed. Treat-ment for an eating disorder usually has the follow-ing three goals: (1) resolution of the psychosocial and family dynamics that led to the development of the eating disorder; (2) provision of medical services to correct any medical problems that resulted from starving, bingeing and purging, or being obese; and (3) reestablishment of normal weight and healthy eating behavior.
The rational therapy approach provides a use-ful way to assess and treat unwanted emotions and dysfunctional behaviors. This approach asserts that thinking patterns primarily determine all emotions and behaviors, and that assessing human behavior is largely a process of identifying the cognitions that underlie unwanted emotions or dysfunctional behav-iors. Furthermore, the approach asserts that in or-der to change dysfunctional behaviors or unwanted emotions, the affected person needs to change his or her thinking patterns.
There are many theories about the causes of crime and delinquency. Our society uses two differ-ent approaches to perpetrators of crime and delin-quent actions. One is a punishment approach, such as fines and incarceration. The other is a treatment approach, which seeks to reform the perpetrator.
The motive for committing any crime is precisely the reasons why the perpetrator thinks he/she should commit the crime. How does society stop a perpetra-tor from continuing to commit a specific crime? In a nutshell, the perpetrator has to come to the con-clusion that the adverse consequences of committing that crime outweigh the benefits.
LO 4 Understand material on social work with groups, including theories about group develop-ment and theories about group leadership.Doing social work with groups is a typical activ-ity for today’s social workers. Types of groups fre-quently encountered in practice include recreation, recreation-skill, educational, task, problem solving and decision making, focus, self-help, socialization, therapy, and encounter groups.
Four models of group development explain how groups change over time. The Garland, Jones, and Kolodny model hypothesizes five stages: preaffilia-tion, power and control, intimacy, differentiation, and separation. The Tuckman model conceptualizes groups as having the following stages: forming, storm-ing, norming, performing, and adjourning. Schiller developed a relational model that is applicable to women’s groups. Bales developed a recurring-phase model in which he asserted that groups continue to seek an equilibrium between task-oriented work and emotional expressions to build better relationships among group members.
All groups have task roles and maintenance roles that need to be performed by members. Task roles are needed to accomplish the specific goals set by the group; maintenance roles strengthen the social or emotional aspects of group life.
The theory of leadership highlighted in this chap-ter is distributed functions. With this approach, leadership is defined as the performance of acts that help the group reach its goals and maintain itself in good working order. Leadership occurs when one member influences other members to help the group reach its goals. Because all group members at times influence other group members, each member in a group exerts leadership. Four other approaches to leadership theory are the trait approach, the position approach, the style approach, and the servant lead-ership approach.
COMPETENCY NOTESThe following identifies where Educational Policy (EP) competencies and practice behaviors are dis-cussed in the chapter.
EP6 a. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks to engage with clients and constituencies
EP7 b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in the analysis of assessment data from clients and constituencies (All of this chapter.)The content of this chapter is focused on social work students acquiring both of these behaviors in work-ing with adolescents.
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Social Development in Adolescence 4 0 9
EP8 b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies (pp. 368–375)With clients with eating disorders, select appropri-ate intervention strategies, and help them resolve problems.
EP8b. Apply knowledge of human behavior and the social environment, person-in-environment, and other multidisciplinary theoretical frameworks in interventions with clients and constituencies (pp. 375–385)
With clients who have emotional problems or behav-ioral dysfunctions, select appropriate intervention strategies, and help them resolve problems.
EP1 Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior (pp. 374, 378, 384, 386)Ethical questions are posed.
WEB RESOURCESSee this text’s companion website at www.cengagebrain.com for learning tools such as chapter quizzes, videos, and more.
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410
9
CH
AP
TE
R
Gender, Gender IdentIty, Gender expressIon,
and sexIsm
AP
Imag
es/J
. Sco
ttA
pple
whi
te
Girls are pretty. Boys are strong.Girls are emotional. Boys are brave.Girls are soft. Boys are tough.Girls are submissive. Boys are dominant.
These statements express some of the traditional stereotypes about men and women.Stereotypes are “fixed mental images of members belonging to a group based on as-
sumed attributes that portray an overly simplified opinion about that group.” (Kirst-Ashman
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 411
& Hull, 2012b, p. 25). The problem with such fixed images is that they allow no room for individual differences within the group. One of the major values adhered to in social work is that each individual has the right to self-determination. Clinging to stereotypes violates this basic value.
Stereotypes about men and women are especially dangerous because they affect every one of us. To expect all men to be successful, strong, athletic, brave leaders places an impractical burden on them. To expect all women to be sweet, submissive, pretty, and born with a natural love of housekeeping places tremendous pressure on them to conform.
A PerspectiveSexism is “the belief that innate psychological, behavioral, and/or intellectual differ-ences exist between women and men and that these differences connote the superiority of one group and the inferiority of the other” (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2017, p. 321).
Prejudice involves negative attitudes and prejudgments about a group. Discrimi-nation is the actual treatment of that group’s members in a negative or unfair manner. Aspects of diversity directly affect how individuals function and interact with other sys-tems in the social environment. The aspect of diversity addressed here is gender. First, the concepts of gender, gender identity, and gender expression will be addressed. Then, because men in our society have traditionally held the majority of positions of power, a large portion of this chapter will focus on the state and status of women as victims of sexism.
Learning ObjectivesThis chapter will help prepare students to
LO 1 Define gender, gender identity, gender expression, and gender rolesLO 2 Discuss the social construction of genderLO 3 Examine the complexities of gender, gender identity, and gen-der expression.LO 4 Evaluate traditional gender-role stereotypes over the lifespanLO 5 Assess some differences between men and women (including abilities and communication styles)LO 6 Discuss economic inequality between men and womenLO 7 Examine sexual harassmentLO 8 Review sexist languageLO 9 Examine rape and sexual assaultLO 10 Explore intimate partner violenceLO 11 Identify means of empowering women
EP 2aEP 2bEP 2cEP 3aEP 3bEP 6aEP 7bEP 8b
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412 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
LO 1 Define Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Gender RolesThis chapter will explore various aspects of what it’s like to be male or female. It will also address dif-ferential and sometimes discriminatory treatment based on gender. In an overly simplistic view of the world, one might think that a person is either a male or a female—period. As you will see, the concept of gender is much more complex than you might ini-tially think. First, let’s define our basic terms.
According to the American Psychological Asso-ciation (2011), gender is defined as “the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associ-ates with a person’s biological sex. Behavior that is compatible with cultural expectations is referred to as gender-normative; behaviors that are viewed as incompatible with these expectations constitute gen-der nonconformity.”
Gender is becoming a complicated concept. Re-searchers and educators are challenging the binary view of gender (being categorically defined as only male or female), recognizing instead that other gen-ders have been recognized, such as genderqueer or intergender (Mooney, Knox, & Schacht, 2017: Hyde & DeLamater, 2017).
The title of this chapter includes gender identity and gender expression. Gender identity is a person’s internal psychological self-concept of being either male or female, or possibly some combination of both (Gilbert, 2008). Gender expression concerns how we express ourselves to others in ways related to gender that include both behavior and personality.
Gender roles are “the attitudes, behaviors, rights, and responsibilities that particular cultural groups associate with our assumed or assigned sex” (Yaber & Sayad, 2016, p. 124).
Gender-role socialization is the process of con-veying what is considered appropriate behavior and perspectives for males and females in a particular culture.
We will differentiate the concepts of gender and sex. Sex “refers to the biological distinction between being female and being male, usually categorized on the basis of the reproductive organs and ge-netic makeup” (McCammon & Knox, 2007, p. 606). Sex, then, focuses on the biological qualities of be-ing male or female; gender emphasizes social and
psychological aspects of femaleness or maleness. The following section will explore how we can think theoretically about gender and its implications.
LO 2 Discuss the Social Construction of GenderWe can look at the concept of gender in many ways. One conceptual framework that fits well with a so-cial work perspective is the social constructionist ap-proach (Bay-Cheng, 2008; Kondrat, 2008). Social construction is “the process by which people’s per-ception of reality is shaped largely by the subjective meaning that they give to an experience . . . From this perspective, little shared reality exists beyond that which people socially create. It is, however, this social construction of reality that influences people’s beliefs and actions” (Kendall, 2013, p. 14). In other words, how people think about situations as they interact with others becomes what is real to them. It’s easy to view the world around us as a physical fact. However, social construction reveals that “we also apply sub-jective meanings to our existence and experience. In other words, our experiences don’t just happen to us. Good, bad, positive, or negative—we attach mean-ings to our reality” (Leon-Guerrero, 2011, p. 9).
A positive aspect of the social constructionist ap-proach is that it incorporates the concept of human diversity, a major focus in social work. People learn how they’re expected to behave through their inter-actions with others around them. People’s behavior will differ depending on the vast range of circum-stances in which they find themselves. Therefore, hu-man diversity should be accepted and appreciated.
Lorber and Moore (2011) note that gender is one’s “legal status as a woman or man, usually based on sex assigned at birth, but may be legally changed. Gen-der status produces patterns of social expectations for bodies, behavior, emotions, family and work roles. Gendered expectations can change over time both on individual and social levels” (p. 5). At least three ma-jor points are stressed in these comments. First, gen-der is a legal status, usually determined at birth, that can be changed. Second, gender status results from social expectations. Therefore, the makeup of gender is determined by the social context in which a per-son lives. Third, expectations for how people of each gender are supposed to act can change over time, de-pending on the expectations of people around them.
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 413
The social construction of gender “looks at the structure of the gendered social order as a whole and at the processes that construct and maintain it” (Lorber, 2010, p. 244). It assumes that traditional gender expectations are not facts carved in stone, but rather perceptions and expectations that can be changed. Perhaps gender is a dynamic, develop-ing concept that allows for great flexibility in roles and behavior. A more inclusive approach might be to stop dividing humanity up into males and females and, instead, appreciate a continuum of gender ex-pression. According to Kramer (2005), the social construction of gender stresses that
the differences between females and males are not based in some biologically determined truth. For example, in the nineteenth century, affluent white women in the United States were expected to stay at home once their pregnancies were apparent (a period called “confinement”) and to be treated as infirm for weeks after delivery. Enslaved women, in contrast, worked until going into labor and resumed work shortly afterward. The impact of pregnancy and childbirth on a woman’s physical capacities was constructed differently depending on social categories other than her sex . . .
But social construction . . . refers to the social practice of perceiving and defining aspects of people and situations inconsistently, to force our observations to fit our social beliefs. Thus, before the women’s movement (which started in the late 1960s), the scoring of vocational tests, taken by people to determine what careers they might best follow, was done with two answer keys—one for females and one for males. Even if your answers were identical to those of someone of the other sex, the vocational advice was different.
For a more dramatic example, the very notion that all humans can be clearly and without argument categorized as female or male is a social construction. Some people have chromosomal patterns associated with one sex, and they have primary (genital) sex characteristics or secondary (e.g., facial hair) sex characteristics, or both, associated with the other [as a later section addresses]. Some people have genitalia that are not clearly what our culture labels either “male” or “female.” These variations in people’s biological characteristics are more common than our cultural beliefs suggest . . .
Because so many social statuses have gendered expectations attached to them, people may often find themselves, one way or another, feeling marginal to some sphere of their social lives. This affects the way that they perform their roles and the ways that others interact with them, affecting how they are able to perform their roles. They will have to put more energy into establishing their credentials in each position to be treated as a legitimate occupant of it by others. If the veteran is a woman returning to military service, in some ways she will be marginalized; both male veterans and nonveteran females feel that she is somehow not a “regular” member of their own category. If you have read the last sentence believing that times have changed, go to your local post office and look at the forms for registering for the Selective Service. Men must register, and women cannot. (pp. 3–5)
LO 3 Examine the Complexities of Gender, Gender Identify, and Gender ExpressionAs stated previously, gender is not a simple concept. Consider the following story (Colapinto, 2007).
Frank and Linda, both raised in religious families on farms, met in their mid-teens and married when they were ages 20 and 18, respectively. Making a move to an urban area, Frank got what he regarded as a great job. The couple soon joyfully discovered they were expecting twins. Much to their delight, identical twins John and Kevin were born to them on August 22, 1965.
But when the twins were 7 months old, Linda noticed that their foreskins were closing, making it hard for them to urinate. Then pediatrician ex-plained that the condition, called phimosis, was not rare and was easily remedied by circumcision. Linda and Frank then sought to remedy the condition through surgery.
But early the next morning [after surgery], they were jarred from sleep by a ringing phone. It was the hospital. “There’s been a slight accident,” a nurse told Linda. “The doctor needs to see you right away.”
In the children’s ward, they were met by the surgeon. Grim-faced, businesslike, he told them that John had suffered a burn to his penis. Linda remembers being shocked into numbness by the
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414 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
news . . . The doctor seemed reluctant to give a full explanation—and it would, in fact, be months before [the couple] . . . would learn that the injury had been caused by an electro-cautery needle, a device some-times used in circumcisions to seal blood vessels as it cuts. Through mechanical malfunction or doctor error, or both, a surge of intense heat had engulfed John’s penis. ‘It was blackened,’ Linda says, recall-ing her first glimpse of his injury. ‘It was like a little string. And it went right up to the base, up to his body.’ Over the next few days, the burnt tissue dried and broke away in pieces” (p. 3).
Appalled and frantically worried, Frank and Linda visited a range of specialists. They were told that it might be possible to construct a structure from skin grafts, but that this penis would neither look like nor function like a normal penis. Its only useful purpose would be urination. Frank and Linda foresaw a bleak and dismal future for John who would always be very different and would never re-ally experience a normal life.
Finally, Frank and Linda came into contact with a charismatic famous physician who was just be-ginning to conduct transsexual surgery. Remember that the state of practice was unfamiliar and primi-tive compared to what can be accomplished medi-cally and surgically today. This physician urged the couple to undertake corrective surgery to change John’s gender to female as soon as possible. He stressed that gender identity becomes firmly estab-lished by age 30 months. Frank and Linda, who only had sixth-grade educations, reflect later on their lack of understanding. They didn’t comprehend that this procedure had never really been performed on an otherwise normal baby before and that such surgery was indeed experimental. Friends and family raised serious questions. But, constantly faced with the poor baby’s deformity, they hoped for the best and decided to proceed.
In 1967 at age 22 months, John “underwent surgi-cal castration” (p. 10). Medical records indicate that the operating physician “slit open the baby’s scrotum along the midline and removed the testes, then en-closed the scrotal tissue so that it resembled labia. The urethra was lowered to approximate the posi-tion of the female genitalia, and a cosmetic vaginal cleft was made by forming the skin around a rolled rub of gauze during healing” (p. 10).
Over the next years, Frank and Linda desper-ately tried to make John, now called Joan, act like
a female and develop a female gender identity. The famous physician who persuaded them to have the surgery done in the first place advised them neither to talk about it nor to inform Joan about her real biological gender. Joan’s parents tried to make her wear feminine clothing and play with girls’ toys. However, Joan persistently remained a tomboy, clearly preferring the masculine dress and behavior demonstrated by her brother Kevin. By kindergar-ten Joan, her peers, and her teacher know that she was “different.” Joan couldn’t identify exactly what this difference was, but she knew she didn’t feel like a girl. She continued to experience interpersonal dif-ficulties throughout grade school.
Joan was given female hormones beginning at age 12. By age 14, “the drugs were in competition with her male endocrine system, which, despite the absence of testicles, was now in the full flood of puberty—a fact readily apparent not only in her lop-ing walk and the angular manliness of her gestures, but also in the dramatic deepening of her voice, which, after a period of breaking and cracking, had dropped into its current rambling register. Physi-cally, her condition was such that strangers turned to stare at her” (p. 18).
At this point, Joan decided that she would hence-forth live life the way she chose. She wore masculine clothing, refused to fuss with her hair, and uri-nated standing up. She “transferred to a technical high school, where she enrolled in an appliance-repair course. There she was quickly dubbed Cave-woman and Sasquatch and was openly told, ‘You’re a boy’ ” (p. 18).
Frank finally explained to Joan/John, at age 14, what had happened and about really being a biologi-cal male. After the initial shock, Joan/John’s reaction was pure relief. Suddenly, his life, feelings, and be-havior all began to make sense to him.
Joan’s decision to undergo a sex change was immediate. She changed her name to John and demanded male-hormone treatments and surgery to complete her metamorphosis back from girl to boy. That fall, he had his breasts surgically excised; the following summer, a rudimentary penis was constructed. The operation was completed one month prior to his 16th birthday. (p. 19)
Male peers tended to accept John immediately. It was his relationships with females that bred compli-cations. Although he was strikingly handsome and
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 415
attractive to women, his lack of a functioning penis remained quite a challenge and embarrassment for him.
When John was 21, he had another operation that provided him with a penis that appeared much more realistic. Nerve transplants provided some sensation.
At 23, John met a woman three years older than himself who already had three children. They mar-ried when John was 25, and he adopted her children.
Eventually, John came forward and spoke out against sex reassignment surgery on young children. He shared how devastatingly difficult it had made many years of his life. His hope was to prevent the procedure from being performed on other unknow-ing innocents.
Very unfortunately, John killed himself in 2004 when he was 38.
Money (1987) proposed that gender is a complex concept involving six physical and two psychological variables:
1. Gender designated by chromosomes, XX for females and XY for males
2. Presence of testes or ovaries3. Prenatal response in gender and brain develop-
ment to the presence of testosterone for males and to the lack of it for females
4. Presence of internal organs related to reproduc-tion, including the uterus, fallopian tubes, and vagina in females, and the seminal vesicles and prostate in males
5. Appearance of the external genitals6. Hormones evident during puberty (estrogen and
progesterone in the female, testosterone in the male)
7. Gender assigned at birth (“It’s a boy!” or “It’s a girl!”)
8. Gender identity, a person’s internal psychological self-concept of being either a male or a female
It is estimated that 1 out of every 1,500 to 2,000 babies born has some combination of physical characteristics demonstrated by both sexes (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Intersex Society of North Amer-ica [ISNA], 2008a; National Institutes of Health [NIH], 2013a). Reasons include having “an atypical combination of sex chromosomes or as a result of prenatal hormonal irregularities” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 120). For example, Klinefelter’s syndrome is a sex chromosome disorder in which males are
born with an extra X chromosome, resulting in an XXY designation; “the Y chromosome triggers the development of male genitalia, but the extra X pre-vents them from developing fully” (Carroll, 2013b, p. 86). Results include a feminized body appear-ance, low testosterone levels, small testicles, and, possibly, infertility (Lee, Cheng, Ahmed, Shaw, & Hughes, 2007). Treatment may involve testosterone therapy.
Another example of contradiction in physical gender is a genetic female who as a fetus is exposed to excessive androgens (a class of male hormones); as a result she develops external genitals that resem-ble a male’s (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Her clitoris is enlarged enough to resemble a penis and the labia (folds of tissue around the vaginal entrance) may converge and resemble a scrotum (the pouch that holds the male testes) (Carroll, 2013b; Crooks & Baur, 2014). When diagnosed at birth, cosmetic sur-gery can often be performed to “feminize” the per-son’s genitalia.
There are many other examples of people who have some mixture of male and female predisposi-tion and configuration of reproductive structures. Such a person is referred to as pseudohermaphrodite or intersex. A true hermaphrodite is a person “born with fully formed ovaries and fully formed testes, which is exceptionally rare” (Carroll, 2013b, p. 86). Intersex is much more common.
The Intersex Society of North America (ISNA) (2008c) and the National Institutes of Health (2013a) raise serious questions regarding the right of parents and physicians to make arbitrary decisions about surgically altering a child without that child’s knowledge and consent. Such procedures apparently are undertaken theoretically in the best interests of the child, possibly without parental consent (ISNA, 2008b). The ISNA (2008c) makes several recommen-dations regarding how intersexed children and their families should be treated. First, these children and their parents should be treated with respect; physi-cians and medical staff should address the condi-tion and issues openly and honestly without shame. Second, families with intersexed children should be referred to social workers or other mental health professionals to address issues and potential deci-sions. Third, these families should also be connected with other families who have intersexed children for peer support and deeper insight into the issues involved. Fourth, after careful consideration, an
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416 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
intersexed child should be assigned a gender “as boy or girl, depending on which of those genders the child is more likely to feel as she or he grows up.” Such gender assignment should not involve surgery, because surgery may destroy tissue that the child may want later on in life. Fifth, the child should re-ceive medical treatment “to sustain physical health” (e.g., “surgery to provide a urinary drainage opening when a child is born without one”). Sixth, surgeries to make the child “look ‘more normal’ ” should be avoided until the child is old enough to decide for him- or herself.
Spotlight 9.1 reviews other avenues of gender ex-pression. The next sections will address gender roles and the social expectations traditionally and cur-rently attached to them. These include gender-role stereotypes in childhood, adolescence, and adult-hood, in addition to more general differences in males and females.
Ethical Question 9.1
EP 1
When infants are born with an ambiguous or unclear gender, should they be assigned to one gender or the other? At that time, should they be physically altered to more closely resemble the assigned gender? If so, who should be responsible for making this decision? To what extent might children with ambiguous genitals (even after being given an assigned gender as the ISNA suggests) fit in with their peers and be able to function well socially? Would it be better to wait until children reach adulthood to determine gender and/or to do any relevant surgery? Why or why not? Should society become more open-minded and expand its views of sex and gender to include more variations of male and female (a proposal that the ISNA does not support)?
LO 4 Evaluate Traditional Gender-Role Stereotypes over the LifespanFrom the moment they’re born, boys and girls are treated very differently. Girls are wrapped in pink blankets, and parents are told that they now have “a beautiful little girl.” Boys, on the other hand, are wrapped in blue blankets, and parents are told that they now are the proud parents of “a bouncing baby boy.” The process of gender stereotyping continues through childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Gender stereotyping involves expectations about how people should behave based on their gender. Female stereotypes include being “nurturant, sup-portive, intuitive, emotional, . . . needful, dependent, tender, timid, fragile, . . . childlike, . . . passive, . . . obedient, . . . [and] . . . submissive”; in stark con-trast, male stereotypes include being “powerful, cre-ative, intelligent, rational, independent, self-reliant, strong, courageous, daring, responsible, . . . force-ful, . . . authoritative, . . . [and] successful” (see also Richardson, 2007; Ruth, 1998, p. 153; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). These stereotypes have nothing to do with an individual’s personality, personal strengths and weaknesses, or likes and dislikes. Note, however, that gender stereotypes held by many in this culture do not apply equally to all racial and ethnic groups. For example, the traditional gender role for African American women includes both strength and inde-pendence (McCammon & Knox, 2007; Yarber & Sayad, 2016).
A major problem with gender-based stereotypes is that they often limit people’s alternatives. Pressure is exerted from many sources for people to conform to gender-based expectations. This pressure affects the individual and the alternatives available to him or her.
For example, until 1920, when women finally were allowed to vote in national elections, concrete politi-cal input was not available to them. Before that time, the political macro system (the U.S. government) dictated that women could not vote. Gender-based stereotypes about women that helped maintain that law may have included the following: Women were not bright enough to participate in decision making; women belonged in the home, caring for husband and children, not in the hectic world of politics;
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 417
Other Forms of Gender ExpressionThere are a number of other means by which people express their gender. Carroll (2013a) reflects:
In Western culture, when babies are born, the genital anatomy is used to determine biological sex. If there is a penis, the child is a boy; if there is no penis, the child is a girl. Today we know that gender is much more complicated than that. Our biology, gender identity, and gender expression all intersect, creating a multidimensional gender spectrum. One person can be born female ([with] XX [chromosomes]), identify as a woman, act feminine, and have sex with a man, whereas another can be born female (XX), identify as a woman, act masculine, and have sex with both men and women. (p. 79)
A number of terms have been used to characterize people who have various traits and demonstrate various behaviors along the gender spectrum. Transgenderism includes people “whose appearance and/or behaviors do not conform to traditional gender roles” (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 129). In other words, “people whose sex and gender differ are known as transgender” (Greenberg, Bruess, & Oswalt, 2014, p. 325). Transsexuals are people who feel they are imprisoned in the physical body of the wrong gender. Because their gender identity and sense of self are at odds with their biological inclination, they often seek to adjust their physical appearance closer to that of their gender identity through surgery and hormonal treatment. Many transsexual people prefer to be referred to as transgender people. The word transsexual emphasizes sex, whereas transgender emphasizes gender, which they say is the real issue. Transwoman “may be used by male-to-female transsexuals to signify they are female with a male history”; transman is a term “that may be used by female-to-male transsexuals to signify they are male with a female history” (Carroll, 2013a, p. 80; Rosenthal, 2013). Transyouth may “be used to describe youths who are experiencing issues related to gender identity or expression” (Carroll, 2013a, p. 80).
Many other groups of people are often identified along the gender spectrum. Transvestites are those who derive sexual gratification from dressing in the clothing of the opposite gender. In our society, almost all transvestites are heterosexual males (Carroll, 2013b; Wheeler, Newring, & Draper, 2008), perhaps because women have much greater freedom and flexibility in how they dress. Drag queens are gay men who dress up as women. Lesbians who dress up in traditionally masculine clothing may be referred to as drag kings. Female impersonators are men who dress up as women, usually for the purpose of providing entertainment. They may be heterosexual or gay. A common performance involves
mimicking the dress and style of famous female performers, often lip-synching (moving their lips to a song and music without producing any sound) their greatest hits.
Other Cultures and Diversity Concerning the Gender SpectrumCarroll (2013a) comments on cultural diversity concerning the gender spectrum:
Some cultures challenge our notions of gender and even have a gender category that encompasses both aspects of gender. Two-spirits (or berdache) have been found in many cultures throughout the world, including American Indian, Indian, and Filipino cultures. A two-spirit was usually (but not always) a biological male who was effeminate or androgynous in behavior and who took on the social role of female (Blackwood, 1994: Jacobs et al., 1997; W. L. Williams, 1986). Being a two-spirit was considered a vocation, like being a hunter or warrior . . . In all social functions, the two-spirit was treated as a female. They held a respected, sacred position in society and were believed to have special powers.
Biologically female two-spirits began showing interest in boys’ activities and games during childhood (Blackwood, 1984; Jacobs et al., 1997). Adults, recognizing this desire, would teach the girls the same skills the boys were learning. (In one tribe, a family with all girl children might select one daughter to be their “son,” tying dried bear ovaries to her belt to prevent conception!)
Other cultures have similar roles. The Persian Gulf country of Oman has a class of biological males called the xani-th (Wikan, 1977). The xani-th are exempt from the strict Islamic rules that restrict men’s interaction with women because they are not considered men. They sit with females at weddings and may see the bride’s face; they may not sit with men in public or do tasks reserved for men. Yet, the xani-th are not considered females either; for example, they retain men’s names.
Another important example is the hijra of India. The hijra are men who undergo ritual castration in which all or part of their genitals are removed, and they are believed to have special powers to curse or bless male children. Hijra dress as women, although they do not really try to “pass” as women; their mannerisms are exaggerated, and some even sport facial hair. In India, the hijra are considered neither men nor women but inhabit a unique third social gender (Nanda, 2001). (pp. 82–83)
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 9.1
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418 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
women were destined to be the virtuous upholders of purity and human dignity (Rothman, 1978)—qualities not to be muddied in the political arena. Whatever the reasons, women were simply not al-lowed to vote.
In order to understand and assess human behav-ior, one must be aware of the pressures that gender-based stereotypes have on people. Social workers need to understand how human diversity affects behavior. Gender is one critical type of diversity. Gender-based differences and stereotypes will be examined within the contexts of childhood, adoles-cence, and adulthood.
ChildhoodWe established in Chapter 4 that females and males are treated differently from the moment they are born. Even parents who state that they consciously try to avoid imposing gender stereotypes on their children nevertheless do treat girls and boys differ-ently (Bernstein, Penner, Clarke-Stewart, & Roy, 2003; Crooks & Baur, 2014). Thus, it’s difficult to separate out any inborn differences from those that are learned.
Parents generally treat boys in a more physical manner than they treat girls. Parents also tend to communicate to male and female children differently
(Yarber & Sayad, 2016). For example, they tend to respond positively to boys who behave actively and to girls who talk calmly or touch gently.
Boys are discouraged from emotional expression such as crying (Carroll, 2013b; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). If 6-year-old Susie falls, skins her knee, and comes into the house crying, her mother might re-spond, “You poor thing. Did you hurt yourself ? It’s okay now. Let me kiss it and make it better.” If 6-year-old Bill falls, skins his knee, and runs into the house, his mother might respond, “Now, now, Bill, big boys don’t cry. It’ll be okay. Let me put a Band-Aid on it.” Even very little boys are often encouraged to be strong, brave, and bereft of outward emotion. A tragic result of this is that as adults, males often maintain this facade. This sometimes creates prob-lems in adult love and sexual relationships in which men are expected to express their feelings and com-municate openly.
Gender differences are demonstrated in how children play (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Papalia & Martorell, 2015; Renzetti, Curran, & Maier, 2012). Boys are more aggressive than girls. Additionally, children tend to choose gender-related toys. Boys are drawn to “masculine” toys such as guns and trucks, whereas girls tend to prefer “feminine” playthings like Barbies.
AdolescenceBecause it is a time of change, adolescence can be difficult. Bodies change drastically, sexual desires emerge, peers exert tremendous pressure to conform, personal identities are struggling to surface, and conflicts with parents are rampant. In addition to these other issues, adolescents may have to deal with powerful pressures to conform to gender stereotypes exerted by parents, peers, teachers, and the media (Carroll, 2013b; Crooks & Bauer, 2014). This pro-cess has been called gender intensification, a period of “increased pressures for gender-role conformity” (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013, p. 152). Hyde and Else-Quest (2013) reflect:
The pressure, then, is for girls to become more feminine and less masculine, beginning around 11 or 12 years of age. A recent, study of youth who entered adolescence in the 21st century, however, questioned whether gender intensification is as strong as it once was (Priess et al, 2009). Girls did not increase in femininity scores from age 11
Gender-role stereotypes persist despite the complexity of gender.
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 419
to 15, and girls actually scored as high as boys on masculinity. Pressures for gender conformity may not be as strong today as they once were, or perhaps they have simply become more subtle, like modem sexism. (pp. 152–153)
Carroll (2013b) comments:
What is masculine? What is feminine? Not too long ago, the answers would have seemed quite obvious: men naturally have masculine traits, meaning they are strong, stable, aggressive, competitive, self-reliant, and emotionally undemonstrative; women are naturally feminine, meaning they are intuitive, loving, nurturing, emotionally expressive, and ge n t l e. E ve n t o d a y, m a ny wo u l d a g re e t h a t such traits describe the differences between the
sexes. These gender stereotypes, however, are becoming less acceptable as our culture changes. Masculinity and femininity refer to the ideal cluster of traits that society attributes to each gender. (p. 90)
Who do you feel best embody ideal masculine and feminine traits today? As an adolescent, whom did you look up to and why? To what extent did these people serve as role models? How did you alter your behavior in response to them and their behavior? To what extent do you feel that improving insight into yourself and your own behavior can provide better understanding of other people’s behavior?
Spotlight 9.2 describes the importance of cross-cultural influences on gender-role development.
Cross-Cultural perspectives on Gender-role developmentGender-role socialization, of course, varies depending on one’s cultural background. Differences in roles between men and women are exaggerated in some cultures and diminished in others.
Traditional Asian American families are patriarchal, with status and power determined by age, generation, and gender (Balgopal, 2008; Brammer, 2012; Lu, 2008). Huang and Ying (1998) describe the values associated with a Chinese heritage:
Gender and birth position were . . . associated with certain duties and privileges. Sons were more highly valued than daughters; family lineage was passed through the male, while females were absorbed into the families of their husbands. The first-born son, the most valued child, received preferential treatment as well as more familial responsibilities. The prescriptive roles for daughters were less rewarding; females often did not come into positions of authority or respect until they assumed the role of mother-in-law. (p. 38)
A son’s primary responsibility is to be a “good son” throughout life, including caring for aging parents (Balgopal, 2008, p. 156; Lu, 2008). This does not apply to daughters.
Note that China continues to enforce the policy that most couples may have only one child. Because male infants are valued much more highly than females, many parents choose to give their infant girl up for adoption and try again for a boy.
Although gender roles are changing somewhat for Mexican Americans, as they are for Americans in general, traditional Mexican American families adhere to strict separation
of gender roles; men are to be heads of the household and women should submit themselves to their husbands, devoting their attention to caring for the family (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Diller, 2015; Longres & Aisenberg, 2008). Ramirez (1998) describes the gender-role socialization of many Mexican Americans:
Differences in sex-role socialization are clearly evident in this culture and become especially prominent at adolescence. The adolescent female is likely to remain much closer to the home than the male and to be protected and guarded in her contacts with others beyond the family, so as to preserve her femininity and innocence. The adolescent male, following the model of his father, is given much more freedom to come and go as he chooses and is encouraged to gain worldly knowledge outside the home in preparation for the time when he will assume the role of husband and father. (p. 220)
Diller (2015) explains gender-role differences between Arab and Muslim American men and women within the family context:
The Arab family has been described as patriarchal and authoritarian, hierarchical, and extended . . . Men and women are expected to follow specific codes of family and honor, maintain the family, and rear the children. Communication within the family tends to be vertical rather than horizontal—top-down . . . Boys and girls are treated differently, with an eye to instilling traditional
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 9.2
(continued)
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42 0 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
SPOTLIGHT ON DIVERSITY 9.2 (continued)
sex role expectations in both . . . They are expected to obey the authority of the father and family, as opposed to having and acting upon their own ideas. They spend more time with and are emotionally attached to the mother, who often acts as a go-between in communication with the father. (p. 319)
However, Hakim-Larson, Nassar-McMillan, and Paterson (2013) remark:
While Arab American women have had their share of difficulties in negotiating between American values and ideals and those of their Middle Eastern heritage, they have been resilient and resourceful in developing individualized solutions to conflicts about issues such as modesty in clothing, dating, chastity, and rebellion against husband, or spousal authority. For example, some Middle Eastern women have developed strategies to flexibly adapt their clothing and social behavior according to the social situation . . . Some also maintain a high motivation to assimilate to North American life by voluntarily participating in community organizations and by adopting American cultural traditions. They perceive fewer restrictions on their freedom if they are successful in doing so. (p. 275)
In contrast to cultures with highly differentiated gender roles, African Americans are often taught to assume more egalitarian roles (Diller, 2015; Moore, 2008). Evans (2013) explains:
African American families have historically promoted egalitarian gender-role socialization. Both boys and girls are trained to be assertive and are usually required to learn all household tasks rather than the tasks being split according to gender (e.g., girls wash dishes, boys take out garbage [)] . . . Interestingly, these nonspecific gender roles may be a throwback to African roots (Hill, 1999). In West Africa, “women were expected to be economically productive and had some power and authority in sociopolitical matters” (Hill, 1999. p. 109). This socialization is said to account for the leadership roles of black females, in that they have benefited from developing traditionally “masculine” traits of assertiveness and independence while keeping traditional female traits of nurturing and relationship building. Black males are hurt more for the feminine traits that they acquire, in that U.S. society already values masculine traits more than feminine ones. (p. 142)
Remember, however, not to make automatic assumptions. Just because an individual belongs to a particular ethnic or racial group, that individual does not automatically conform to the gender-role traits that often characterize that group. Instead, be sensitive to differences and appreciative of diverse strengths. Any individual may experience some degree of acculturation, “an ethnic person’s adoption of the dominant culture in which he or she is immersed. There are several degrees of acculturation; a person can maintain his or her own traditional cultural beliefs, values, and customs from the country of origin [or cultural heritage] to a greater or a lesser extent” (Lum, 2000, p. 201).
AdulthoodWomen are often taught that they should be fulfilled by becoming wives and mothers (Geller, 2004; Shaw & Lee, 2012). Men, on the other hand, are often taught that their main source of self-satisfaction should come from their jobs (Shaw & Lee, 2012). The pressures and expectations resulting from both of these stereotypes often create serious problems. A woman who devotes herself entirely to being a wife and homemaker makes herself entirely dependent on her husband. If her husband dies, becomes ill, or leaves her, such a woman is in a vulnerable posi-tion. Almost one out of two marriages in the United States ends in divorce (American Psychological As-sociation, 2014).
Traditional gender-role socialization and stereo-types are associated with at least three disadvantages
for women. First, women are encouraged to enter fields segregated by gender where they earn sig-nificantly less money than men do (Kendall, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Kendall comments that even though many people “are optimistic about the gains U.S. women have made in employment, it should be noted that women’s position as a social category in the labor force is lower than men’s in terms of status, opportunities, and salaries” (p. 86). A later section of the chapter will discuss this in greater depth.
A second disadvantage for women is that even when they work outside the home, which most do, they are still expected to do the majority of the housework and provide most of the child care (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2013). This is true regardless of social class, the status of
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Gender, Gender Identity, Gender Expression, and Sexism 421
the woman’s job, or rural or urban residence. When more time and energy are devoted to home and family, less time and energy are left to contribute to outside work and career. Often this expectation can create marital stress as the wife pressures the husband to share household and child-care tasks equally; even when husbands participate signifi-cantly in household tasks, it still primarily remains the wives’ responsibility to get things done (Hyde & Else-Quest, 2013; Kirk & Okazawa-Rey, 2013).
For example, Sharon and Dick, who were both professionals in their late 30s, married late and chose to have no children. They lived in a tiny duplex for several years to save money so that they might buy a new home. Finally, they made it. They had saved enough, and it was moving day. They asked Dick’s parents to help them move. That was a big mistake. For years, Sharon and Dick had both worked long hours outside the home. They had divided the house-work up by room. Sharon had the kitchen, the extra bedroom, which was her office, and the bathroom to keep clean; Dick had their bedroom and the living room as his domain. When the large pieces of fur-niture were moved out, Sharon made the mistake of walking into the bedroom, Dick’s domain, as Dick’s father was sweeping large dust balls around the floor. He barked abrasively at Sharon, “You better not let your new house get this dirty! This is disgust-ing!” Sharon’s father-in-law, and the world at large, made housecleaning Sharon’s responsibility and burden because she was the wife. Any uncleanliness was clearly considered her fault, even though she had never been the least bit domestically oriented. Housework had always bored her to tears.
A third disadvantage that women may experience based on gender-role stereotypes is the potential stress generated from the demands of being beauti-ful and attractive (Yarber & Sayad, 2013). Bartky (2007) explains:
There is something obsessional in the preoccupation of many women with their bodies, although the magnitude of the obsession will vary somewhat with the presence or absence in a woman’s life of other sources of self-esteem and with her capacity to gain a living independent of her looks. Surrounded on all sides by images of perfect female beauty . . . in modern advertising . . . of course we fall short . . . Whose nose is not the wrong shape, whose hips are not too wide or too narrow? . . .
It is a fact that women in our society are regarded as having a virtual duty “to make the most of what we have” . . . [I]t is within our power to make ourselves look better—not just neater and cleaner, but prettier, and more attractive. What is presupposed by this is that we don’t look good enough already, that attention to the ordinary standards of hygiene would be insufficient, that there is something wrong with us as we are. Here, the “intonations of inferiority” are clear: Not only must we continue to produce ourselves as beautiful bodies, but the bodies we have to work with are deficient to begin with. (p. 56)
Men, too, experience lack of freedom and nega-tive consequences from gender-role stereotyping. At least three repercussions result. First, men are ex-pected to be doers who are competent, aggressive, and successful (Shaw & Lee, 2012; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). As a result, they are pressured to succeed in a career, be it engineering, crime scene investigation, real estate sales, dentistry, or some other avenue of achievement. A man holding a job with lesser status is often thought to be a lesser person.
A second negative impact on men of gender-role stereotyping is the pressure not to express emotions (Crooks & Baur, 2014; Yarber & Sayad, 2016). Men are taught that they should not cry, and that they should be strong and decisive. They should espe-cially withhold any emotional demonstrations asso-ciated with weakness, such as depression, fear, and sadness (Crooks & Baur, 2014). Intimacy may be more difficult for men than women, perhaps because of how they were socialized. This may relate to the idea that displaying emotion shows weakness. There-fore, revealing true intimate feelings may be seen as a sign of weakness to be avoided.
A third negative consequence of gender-role ste-reotyping for men involves the fact that their aver-age lifespan is significantly less than that of women. For instance, white females live an average of almost five years longer than white males, and African American females about six years longer than their male counterparts (U.S. Department of Health & Human Service, 2015).
Biology, of course, is involved, in addition, however, the “traditional male role emphasizes achievement, competition, and suppression of feel-ings, all of which may produce stress. Not only is stress itself harmful to physical health, it also may lead to compensatory behaviors, such as smoking,
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42 2 Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment
alcohol and drug abuse, and dangerous risk taking” (McCammon, Knox, & Schacht, 1993, p. 302).
The ongoing problem for both men and women is that gender stereotypes pressure people to conform. They don’t allow much room for individuality and creativity. If we become more flexible and gender stereotypes dissolve, maybe people will be more ob-jective in assessing themselves and not feel pressured to be something they’re not. Abolishing gender ste-reotypes may give us all the freedom to develop more realistic expectations and to live the way we choose.
Much of this chapter is devoted to women’s social and economic issues and the social injustices they face. However, we have established that men also suffer from oppressive demands based on gender

UnderstandingHumanBehaviorandtheSocialEnvironmentbyCharlesZastrowKarenK.Kirst-AshmanSarahL.Hessenauerz-lib.org3.pdf

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